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2. Describe the Course Themes for BIOL 1407.

3. List and explain the properties associated with life, and the features that distinguish living things from non-living things.

4. Describe and critique various explanations for the origin of life on Earth.

5. Explain how conditions on the primitive earth were different from conditions on Earth today.

6. Explain the current model of chemosynthesis.  Be able to list, in sequence, and describe, the major steps proposed by scientists for the origin of the first living cells.

7. Explain how each of the following scientists contributed to our current understanding of how life originated on Earth.
 a. A. I. Oparin
 b. J.B.S. Haldane
 c. Harold Urey
 d. Stanley Miller
 e. Leslie Orgel
 f. Thomas Cech

8. Discuss the scale of geologic time which is used to measure events in the history of the earth.  Be able to place major events in sequence and tell approximately when they occurred.

9. Tell how many different living species there are on Earth and explain how that number is changing.

10. Describe what taxonomy is, explain the functions of a taxonomist, and the importance of these functions.

11. Describe the system of binomial nomenclature developed by Linnaeus, and be able to use it correctly.

12. Explain what is meant by a hierarchical system of classification, and be able to list, in order, the eight main hierarchical categories that are used to classify living organisms.

13. Describe the following categories of evidence used in determining relationships between groups of organisms, recognize examples of each, and explain the components of each and the types of information they provide.  These categories are used in the Lecture Notes.
 a. morphology
 b. distribution and ecology
 c. comparative behavior
 d. comparative cytology - structural
 e. comparative biochemistry

14. Distinguish between the following species concepts and discuss the advantages and disadvantages associated with each:
 a. morphological species concept
 b. biological species concept
 c. multidimensional (or modern) species concept
 d. recognition of species concept
 e. cohesion of species concept

15. Describe the 5 kingdom system of classification originally proposed by R.H. Whittaker.  Be able to list and identify the major characteristics of each kingdom.

16. Describe recent alternatives to Whittaker's scheme and the basis and support for them.  Include the three domain system and suggested candidate kingdoms.

17. Discuss both the advantages and limitations of the modern biological classification system.

18. Explain the theoretical basis for modern biological classification, and describe the types of information and the criteria that taxonomists use in order to classify living organisms.

19. Explain the difference between systematics and taxonomy and discuss the importance of these two fields of biology.

20. Define phylogeny and explain the procedures used in constructing a phylogenetic tree.

21. Distinguish between the following methods that are used to group organisms into taxonomic categories above the species level.
 a. traditional method (or evolutionary taxonomy)
 b. phenetics
 c. cladistics

VIRUSES

22. Discuss the similarities and differences between viruses and cellular organisms.

23. Describe the basic structure of a virus, and be able to explain the function and adaptive significance of the various parts, including:
 a. nucleic acid core
 b. viral-specific enzymes
 c. protein coat or capsid
 d. envelope.

24. Describe the life cycle of viruses, including both lytic and lysogenic cycles.

25. Describe the methods that viruses use to recognize and invade a host cell.

26. Define each of the following terms:  phage (or bacteriophage), pathogenic, virulent, nonvirulent, temperate, provirus, oncogenic virus.

27. Describe the differences between DNA and RNA viruses (including retroviruses).  Include the details of their structure, replication, and protein synthesis.

28. Discuss the importance of viruses as disease-causing agents.  Be able to give examples of viral diseases.

29. Explain what is meant by an oncogenic virus, and explain how viruses may be involved in causing certain types of cancer.

30. Describe some of the methods which are currently being used or developed to prevent or treat viral diseases.

31. Discuss the possible ways in which viruses may have originated.

32. Explain the nature, characteristics, and importance of viroids and prions.
 

MONERA, ARCHAEA, BACTERIA

33. Describe the overall structure of a typical prokaryotic cell.  Also discuss the structure and function of each of the following cell components.
 a. cell wall - be sure you can explain the difference between the cell wall of gram- positive bacteria, gram-negative bacteria, and archaebacteria
 b. capsule
 c. pili
 d. flagella - be able to explain how the structure and function of bacterial flagella differ from those of eukaryotic flagella
 e. plasma membrane
 f. cytoplasm
 g. genophore, nucleoid, plasmids, and episome
 h. ribosomes
 i. mesosome

34. Explain how prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells.  Also be able to describe the structural similarity and diversity found among the prokaryotes: members of the Monera, Archaea, and Bacteria.

35. Identify and briefly describe 3 different methods that bacteria use to actively propel themselves through their environment, and list some of the environmental factors that may affect their direction of movement.

36. Describe each of the following methods of asexual reproduction found among the prokaryotes, and discuss their adaptive significance.
 a. budding
 b. binary fission

37. Describe each of the following methods of sexual reproduction found among the prokaryotes and discuss their adaptive significance.
 A.  transformation
 B.  transduction
 C.  conjugation

38. Explain why bacteria play such an important role in the modern study of genetics and genetic engineering.

39. Describe the process of endospore formation in bacterial cells and discuss the adaptive significance of this process.

40. Distinguish between the following methods that prokaryotes use for obtaining energy, and discuss the ecological importance of each.
 a. heterotroph
 b. chemosynthetic autotroph
 c. photosynthetic autotroph

41. Be able to explain the different metabolic pathways which members of the Bacteria utilize during photosynthesis, and compare these to the pathways used by plants.

42. Distinguish between the following metabolic strategies, and explain why some organisms require one or another of them.
 a. obligate anaerobe
 b. facultative anaerobe
 c. obligate aerobe

43. Explain the role that each of the following plays in the recycling of nitrogen in the biosphere.
 a. decomposing or ammonifying bacteria
 b. nitrogen-fixing bacteria
 c. nitrifying bacteria
 d. denitrifying bacteria

44. Describe the main differences that are found among members of the groups of prokaryotes in Table 27.3 of Campbell.  Be able to give examples, and consider structural characteristics, biochemical characteristics, behavior, modes of nutrition, metabolism, and ecological roles.

45. Distinguish Archaea (and Archaebacteria) from Bacteria (and Eubacteria), and describe the characteristics of each, as well as the differences between them.

46. Discuss the reasons for and against considering the Archaebacteria to be either a possible sixth kingdom or a member of the Domain Archaea.  Be able to give examples, and consider structural characteristics, biochemical characteristics, behavior, modes of nutrition, metabolism and ecological roles of the following groups.
 a. methanogens
 b. extreme halophiles
 c. thermoacidophiles

47. Explain how the prokaryotes fit into an overall explanation of the evolution of life on Earth.

48. Explain and give examples of the role that prokaryotes play in the various types of symbiosis in modern times and as their part in the endosymbiotic theory.

49. Discuss the importance of bacteria as disease-causing agents and be able to give examples of bacterial diseases.  Describe some of the methods which are currently being used or developed to prevent or treat bacterial diseases.

50. Discuss the overall ecological importance of the prokaryotes and, in particular, their ecological and economic importance to humans.

LAB

51. Use the material in your lab handouts and Lab Manual to apply to the objectives above, and be able to apply the objectives above to your lab material.

52. Be able to recognize, name, and classify all of the specimens available in lab.

53. Be able to answer all of the questions posed in the lab handouts.

54. Be able to repeat and describe all of the lab exercises and interpret the results.
 
 

2. Explain why some scientists use Protoctista (rather than Protista) as the name when this is considered to be one kingdom.  Discuss the reasons for this change.

3. Compare the protists with the prokaryotes and describe the major differences in structure, physiology, and complexity that are found in the two groups.

4. Explain why the development of mitosis and meiosis was such an important event in the evolution of living organisms.  Also describe the role that mitosis and meiosis play during asexual and sexual reproduction in eukaryotic organisms.

5. Describe the reproduction and life cycle of selected members of the protists.

6. Describe the main criteria that are used to set up the various classification schemes for the protists.  Be able to compare and contrast the different schemes with one another.

7. Draw and interpret a phylogenetic tree that illustrates the evolutionary relationships among the different phyla (or divisions) of protists as well as their relationships to the other kingdoms of living organisms.

8. Describe the general characteristics of the plant-like protists.

9. Describe the general characteristics of the fungus-like protists.

10. Describe the general characteristics of the animal-like protists.

11. Be able to describe the general characteristics and classification for each of the following divisions / phyla of the Protista.  Campbell's Candidate Kingdoms, and other names that we will ignore, are in brackets [ ], and are only listed here in order to help you find the divisions / phyla in the text.

           [Euglenozoa]
 Euglenophyta (euglenoids)
 Zoomastigophera (flagellates, zooflagellates) [Kinetoplastida]

           [Archaezoa] ---- These will be treated as being part of the Zoomastigophera
                 [Diplomonada]
                 [Trichomonada]
 

            [Alveolata]
 Dinoflagellata (dinoflagellates, A.K.A. Pyrrophyta)
 Apicomplexa (apicomplexans, A.K.A. Sporozoans)
 Ciliophora (ciliates)

           [Groups (with pseudopods) of Uncertain Affinities]
 Rhizopoda (amoebas)
 Actinopoda (heliozoans, radiolarians)
 Foraminifera (forams)

           [Slime molds of Uncertain Affinities]
 Myxomycota (plasmodial slime molds)
 Acrasiomycota (cellular slime molds)

           [Stramenopila]
 Chrysophyta (diatoms, golden algae)  (Diatoms A.K.A. Bacillariophyta)
 Oomycota (water molds)
 Phaeophyta (brown algae)

          [Rhodophyta]
 Rhodophyta (red algae)

          [Chlorophyta]
 Chlorophyta (green algae)

12. Be able to name the kingdom and  phylum or division of the protists listed above, and describe each group with respect to the following, as appropriate:
 a. mode of nutrition
 b. names of some representative members including those studied in lab
 c. means of locomotion
 d. presence and composition of a cell wall or other protective covering
 e. body structure (including the names and functions of any specialized parts)
 f. habitat
 g. photosynthetic pigments
 h. storage products
 i. symbiotic relationships with other organisms, including examples of any disease- causing forms
 j. ecological and economic importance
 k. presence of any other special structures or characteristics
 l. the evolutionary relationship of the phylum to the other phyla
 m. life cycle and reproduction, including alternation of generations if present

13. Distinguish between phytoplankton and zooplankton and discuss the importance of each.

14. Discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with increasing size in living organisms.

15. Differentiate between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular organisms.  Describe some of the selective pressures and pathways that led to the evolution of multicellular organisms.

KINGDOM FUNGI

16. Describe the general characteristics of the Fungi.

17. Describe the basic life style of a fungus.  Also be able to distinguish between the following types of fungi and give examples of each:
 a. saprophytic
 b. parasitic
 c. mutualistic
 d. predatory

18. Describe the basic body plan of a fungus and explain how it is related to the life style of a fungus.  Also be able to identify or describe the following structures and explain their adaptive significance or role in the fungal way of life:
 a. hyphae (distinguish between coenocytic hyphae, septate hyphae, dikaryons, and heterokaryons)
 b. mycelium
 c. stolons, rhizoids, haustoria
 d. aerial hyphae, conidiophores, sporangiophores, sporangia
 e. spores (distinguish between dispersal spores, resting spores, asexual spores, sexual spores)
 f. gametangia, gametes, zygote

19. Describe the general characteristics of the following  divisions of the Kingdom Fungi.
 a. Chytridiomycota (chytrids)
 b. Zygomycota (zygomycetes)
 c. Ascomycota (sac fungi)
 d. Basidiomycota (club fungi)
 e. Deuteromycota (imperfect fungi)

20. Name the divisions of Fungi and discuss each division with respect to the following:
 a. usual vegetative state (whether the hyphae are coenocytic or septate and      whether the hyphal nuclei are haploid or diploid)
 b. method of asexual reproduction
 c. method of sexual reproduction
 d. representative members
 e. presence of any other special structures or characteristics

21. Describe both the asexual and sexual parts of the life cycle for a representative member of each of the divisions of fungi.  For each life cycle name all of the structures involved, indicate the ploidy of each structure, and identify the points where mitosis and meiosis occur.

22. Discuss the nature and importance of the following symbiotic associations involving fungi:
 a. mycorrhizae
 b. lichens

23. Discuss the role that parasitic fungi play as disease-causing agents and be able to give examples of at least 5 different diseases caused by fungi.  Also describe some of the methods that are currently being used or developed to prevent or treat fungal diseases.

24. Discuss the ecological and economic importance of fungi.

LAB

25. Use the material in your lab handouts to apply to the objectives above, and be able to apply the objectives above to your lab material.

26. Be able to recognize, name, and classify all of the specimens available in lab.

27. Be able to answer all of the questions posed in the lab handouts.

28. Be able to repeat and describe all of the lab exercises and interpret the results.
 
 

2. Describe the role that photosynthesis plays in plants.

3. Explain alternation of generations and its origins, and be able to diagram plant life cycles in general terms (and with specific examples), labeling the following terms:  haploid, diploid, sexual, asexual, gametophyte, sporophyte, gamete, spore, zygote, archegonium, antheridium, and sporangium.  Indicate where meiosis, mitosis, and fertilization occur.

4. List the divisions of plants  described in Campbell, and group them according to the following characteristics:
  habitat (primarily aquatic vs. primarily terrestrial)
  presence of vascular tissue
  production of seeds
  production of flowers and fruits

5. Describe the advantages and problems that plants faced as they moved from an aquatic to a terrestrial environment.  Also describe the adaptations that land plants evolved in response to each of these problems.

6. Be able to discuss the major evolutionary trends observed in plants.

THE NON-VASCULAR PLANTS

7. Describe the general characteristics of the following divisions of non-vascular plants.
  Bryophyta - mosses
  Hepatophyta - liverworts
  Anthocerophyta - hornworts

8. Be able to name the three divisions of non-vascular plants discussed in Campbell and describe each division with respect to the following:
 a. names of some representative members, including those studied in lab
 b. habitat
 c. life cycles (be able to diagram and describe the life cycle of a moss or liverwort)
 d. body structure (including the names and functions of any specialized body parts)
 e. adaptations for living on land
 f. factors that act to limit these plants to small size and moist habitats
 g. evolutionary trends and relationships
 h. ecological and economic importance

VASCULAR PLANTS

9. Describe the characteristics that all vascular plants share in common, and discuss the adaptive significance of these characteristics.

10. Identify the divisions of vascular plants and place correctly them in the following categories.
 a. Seedless Plants
 b. Seed Plants
 c. Gymnosperms
 d. Flowering Plants

11. Discuss the ecological and economic importance of the various divisions of plants.
 

SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS

12. Describe the general characteristics of the following divisions of seedless plants.
  Psilophyta - wiskferns
  Lycophyta - club mosses
  Sphenophyta - horsetails
  Pterophyta - ferns

13. Identify the 4 divisions of seedless vascular plants and discuss each one with respect to the following:
 a. distinguishing characteristics
 b. life cycle
 c. representative examples
 d. ecological and economic importance

14. Diagram and describe the life cycle of a typical fern.

15. Explain how the fern life cycle differs from the life cycle found in bryophytes, and discuss the adaptive significance of these differences.
 

SEED PLANTS

16. Many of the ferns, fern allies, and gymnosperms are called living fossils and/or were more prevalent or were larger plants in earlier geological times.  Give examples and be able to:

 a. define what is meant by "living fossil"
 b. describe the plants that made up the Carboniferous coal swamps
 c. describe the extinct group called "seed ferns"
 d. describe what geological events caused the decline of the ferns and their allies, and the emergence of the gymnosperms as a major group.

17. Describe the characteristics that all seed plants share in common and discuss the adaptive significance of these characteristics.

18. Describe the differences between gymnosperms and angiosperms (Anthophyta) and explain how the special characteristics of the angiosperms have helped make them the dominant group of plants in most terrestrial environments.

 GYMNOSPERMS

19. Describe the general characteristics of the following divisions of gymnosperms
  Coniferophyta - conifers
  Cycadophyta - cycads
  Ginkgophyta - ginkgo
  Gnetophyta - gnetae, gnetophytes

20. Be able to name the four divisions of gymnosperms discussed in Campbell and describe each division with respect to the following:

 a. distinguishing characteristics
 b. representative examples
 c. ecological and economic importance

21. Diagram and describe the life cycle of a pine.

22. Explain how the pine life cycle differs from the fern life cycle, and discuss the adaptive significance of these differences.

 ANGIOSPERMS (ANTHOPHYTA)

23. Diagram and describe the generalized life cycle of an angiosperm.

24. Explain how the angiosperm life cycle differs from the pine life cycle, and discuss the adaptive significance of these differences.

25. Describe at least 5 differences between monocots and dicots.

26. Describe the structure, function, evolution, and diversity of the following   angiosperm adaptations:
 a. flowers
 b. fruits

27. Discuss the importance of pollination and pollinators to the reproductive success of the angiosperms.

PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

28. Discuss the general structure and function of the following parts of the plant:
 a. shoot system
 b. root system
 

29. Discuss the three main tissue systems found in vascular plants with respect to the following:
 a. the name, location and function of each tissue system
 b. the names and functions of the tissue types that make up each tissue system
 c. the names, structures, and functions of the cell types that make up each tissue type

30. Explain the concept of indeterminate (open) growth and discuss its importance in plants.  Also distinguish between the following:
 a. meristematic tissue vs. mature or permanent tissue
 b. apical or primary meristem vs. lateral or secondary meristem
 c. vascular cambium vs. cork cambium
 d. primary growth vs. secondary growth
 e. primary tissue vs. secondary tissue
 f. woody plants vs. herbaceous plants
 g. annuals vs. biennials vs. perennials

 FLOWERS AND SEEDS

31. Draw a diagram of a typical flower and then label and describe the function of each of the following parts:
  pedicel, receptacle, sepals, petals, stamens, filament, anther, carpels, pistil, stigma, style, ovary, ovule.

32. Draw a diagram of a typical dicot seed and then label and describe the function of each of the following parts:
  seed coat, embryo, cotyledons, radicle, hypocotyle, epicotyle, plumule.

 ROOTS

33. Describe the functions of roots.

34. Distinguish between taproots, fibrous roots, and adventitious roots.

35. Discuss the process of primary growth in roots.

36. Diagram a longitudinal section of a growing root tip, and then label and describe the func tion of each of the following parts:
  root cap, apical meristem, zone of cell division, zone of cell elongation, zone of cell maturation.

37. Diagram cross sections of mature monocot and dicot roots with primary growth only, and then label and describe the function of each of the following parts:
  epidermis, root hairs, cortex, endodermis, Casparian strip, vascular cylinder (stele), pericycle, phloem, vascular cambium (dicots only), xylem, pith (monocots only).

38. Discuss the formation and growth of lateral roots.

39. Discuss the process of secondary growth in roots.

40. Diagram a cross section of a dicot root with secondary growth, and then label and describe the function of each of the following parts:
  cork, cork cambium, periderm, endodermis, primary phloem, secondary phloem, vascular cambium, secondary xylem, primary xylem.

 STEMS

41. Discuss the functions of stems.

42. Discuss the process of primary growth in shoots.

43. Diagram a longitudinal section of a growing shoot tip, and then label and describe the function of each of the following parts:
  apical meristem, leaf primordium, young leaf, node, bud primordium, bud.

44. Diagram cross sections of mature monocot and dicot stems with primary growth only, and then label and describe the function of each of the following parts:
  cuticle, epidermis, cortex, pith (if present), vascular bundles, xylem, phloem, vascular cambium (if present).

45. Discuss the process of secondary growth in stems.

46. Diagram a cross section of a dicot stem with secondary growth, and then label and describe the function of each of the following parts:
  cork, cork cambium, cortex, primary phloem, secondary phloem, vascular cambium, secondary xylem, primary xylem, pith.

47. Discuss the location and the function or significance of each of the following features of wood:
 a. heartwood
 b. sapwood
 c. growth rings
 d. bark

 LEAVES

48. Discuss leaves with respect to the following:
 a. describe the functions of leaves
 b. explain how conflicting needs affect the structure of leaves
 c. discuss and give examples of the structural modification or specialization of leaves
 d. distinguish between blade and petiole
 e. distinguish between simple and compound leaves

49. Diagram a cross section of a typical leaf and then label and describe the function of each of the following parts:
  upper epidermis, lower epidermis, waxy cuticle, stomata, mesophyll, palisade layer, spongy layer, vein.
 

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

 MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS

50. Identify the 2 types of tissue that make up the vascular tissue system and compare them with respect to structure and function.

51. Explain how water and minerals move from the soil into the vascular tissue of a root.  Be sure to discuss the role of root hairs and mycorrhizae in this process.

52. Describe each of the following explanations for xylem transport, discuss the evidence for and against each explanation, and indicate the relative importance of each in moving water and minerals up through the xylem tissue:
 a. root pressure
 b. capillary action
 c. transpiration pull (the transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism)

53. Discuss the roles of stomata and guard cells in regulating water loss from a plant.

54. Distinguish between macronutrients and micronutrients.  Name those that are found in plants.

55. Explain how water and photosynthetic products are transported in non-vascular plants.

56. Explain the mass flow theory (or pressure flow theory) of phloem transport.

57. Discuss the theories of translocation of photosynthetic products in vascular plants. Relate this to girdling experiments.

58. List and discuss the methods by which plants remove wastes from themselves.

 HORMONES AND ENVIRONMENT

59. Explain the role of environmental factors and plant hormones in regulating plant growth and development.  Also list some of the environmental factors involved in regulating plant growth and development.

60. Explain what a hormone is.

61. List the following classes of plant hormones and discuss the effects or actions of each.
 a. auxin
 b. cytokinins
 c. gibberellins
 d. abscisic acid
 e. ethylene
 f. florigen

62. Describe the following types of plant movements, including their causes and effects.
 a. gravitropism
 b. phototropism
 c. thigmotropism
 d. turgor movements

63. Explain how plants are able to detect the presence of light.

64. Discuss the phenomenon of apical dominance and explain how apical dominance can affect overall plant shape.

65. Discuss photoperiodism and the various factors that influence it, including:
 a. day length
 b. short day, long day, and day neutral plants
 c. night length and critical night length
 d. phytochrome
 e. a possible flowering hormone
 f. biological clocks

66. Explain the way in which signal transduction pathways operate and how they mediate the response of a plant to its environment.

LAB

67. Use the material in your lab handouts to apply to the objectives above, and be able to apply the objectives above to your lab material.
68. Be able to recognize, name, and classify all of the specimens available in lab.
69. Be able to answer all of the questions posed in the lab handouts.
70. Be able to repeat and describe all of the lab exercises and interpret the results.
 
 

2. List the following major phyla of animals described in Campbell, and refer to this list when referring to the other objectives for this unit. (The common names listed below are not a complete list of what is in each phylum.)
  Porifera  (sponges)
  Cnidaria  (jellyfishes, corals, anemones)
  Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
  Rotifera  (rotifers)
  Nematoda  (roundworms)
  Mollusca  (clams, snails, octopuses)
  Annelida  (segmented worms)
  Arthropoda  (crustaceans, insects, spiders)
  Echinodermata (sea stars, sea urchins)
  Chordata  (tunicates, lancelets, vertebrates)

3. Be able to interpret a phylogenetic tree of the major animal phyla.  Explain the relationships which it shows.

4. Discuss the evolutionary trends that have occurred within the animals with respect to the following:
 a. symmetry
 b. overall complexity of organisms
 c. development of distinct tissues, organs, and organ systems
 d. development of coelom
 e. segmentation.

5. Distinguish between the Parazoa and the Eumetazoa.

6. Describe the differences between being asymmetrical, having radial symmetry, and having bilateral symmetry, and explain the terminology associated with each.

7. Describe the advantages associated with each type of symmetry.  Indicate which type of symmetry is usually present in each of the major animal phyla.

8. Discuss the basic patterns of embryological development found in animals, including the role of each of the following:
 a. zygote
 b. cleavage
 c. blastula
 d. gastrulation
 e. organogenesis.

9. Explain the difference between protostomes and deuterostomes, and indicate which animal phyla are included in each group.

10. Explain why larval forms are useful in determining evolutionary relationships.

11. Explain the differences between invertebrates and vertebrates, and indicate which animal phyla are included in each category.

12. For each of the animal phyla in this unit, discuss:
 a. examples
 b. general body plan
 c. reproduction, growth, and life cycle
 d. germ layers
 e. specialized structures
 f. nutrition
 g. digestive tract
 h. symmetry
 i. type of body cavity
 j. ecological and economic importance.

13. Describe the following specialized features of the following phyla:
 a. Porifera
   choanocyte
    spicule
   amoebocyte
        sessile

 b. Cnidaria
   cnidoblast and nematocyst
   polyp
   medusa
   gastrovascular cavity
   alternation of generations

 c. Platyhelminthes
   eye spots
   scolex
   proglottid
   cuticle

 d. Nematoda
   pseudocoelom

 e. Rotifera
   wheel organ
   parthenogenesis

 f. Annelida
   segmentation
    septum
   setae
   coelom

 g. Arthropoda
   jointed appendages
   cuticle
   chitin
   molt
   hemocoel

 h. Mollusca
   foot, tentacles, and arms
   mantle
   cuttlebone
   siphon
   radula

 i. Echinodermata
   water vascular system
   tube feet

 j. Chordata
   notochord
   hollow dorsal nerve cord
   pharyngeal gill slits
   tail
   myotomes
   connective tissue
   cartilage
   bone
   jaws
   fins
   swim bladder
   lungfish
   eggs (amniote or cleidoic)
   scales
   feathers
   hair

14. Define the following terms and be able to apply them correctly to members of the major animal phyla discussed in this unit.
 a. filter feeders
 b. ectoparasite
 c. endoparasite

15. Define what it means to be hermaphroditic, giving specific examples, and list which phyla have members which show this behavior.

16. Describe the body of a typical insect (head, thorax, abdomen).  Explain why insects have been so successful.

17. List the basic characteristics that all chordates display at some stage in their life cycles and describe the adaptive significance of each.  Be sure to distinguish between those characteristics that first appeared in the invertebrate phyla and those that are new innovations among the chordates.

18. Identify the following subphyla of chordates and distinguish between these groups by discussing the general characteristics of each.
 a. Cephalochordata
 b. Urochordata
 c. Vertebrata (Craniata)

19. Discuss the major characteristics of each of the vertebrate classes listed below.  Be sure to identify and describe the importance of any significant new evolutionary innovations or adaptations that occur within each class.  Also be able to list some representative examples from each group:
 a. Agnatha (modern jawless fish)
 b. Placodermi (extinct jawed fishes)
 c. Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
 d. Osteichthyes (bony fish)
 e. Amphibia (amphibians)
 f. Reptilia (reptiles)
 g. Aves (birds)
 h. Mammalia (mammals)

20. Describe the characteristics of the order Primates.

21. Describe the two suborders of primates, the prosimians (Prosimii) and the anthropoids (Anthropoidea) in terms of their basic characteristics, members, and evolutionary relationships.

22. Define, and distinguish between hominoids and hominids, and give examples.

23. Describe the evolution of modern humans, and briefly discuss the major characteristics and the relationships of each of the following:
 a. Australopithicus afarensis
 b. Australopithicus africanus
 c. Australopithicus boisei
 d. Australopithicus robustus
 e. Homo habilis
 f. Homo erectus
 g. Homo sapiens, including H. s. neanderthalensis and H. s. sapiens

LAB

24. Use the material in your lab handouts to apply to the objectives above, and be able to apply the objectives above to your lab material.

25. Be able to recognize, name, and classify all of the specimens available in lab.

26. Be able to answer all of the questions posed in the lab handouts.

27. Be able to repeat and describe all of the lab exercises and interpret the results.
 
 

1. Explain what cephalization is and describe the advantages of a cephalized body.  For each of the major invertebrate phyla indicate whether cephalization is generally present or absent.

2. Explain what a digestive cavity is and describe the advantages associated with the presence of a digestive cavity.  Also explain the advantages of a digestive cavity with 2 openings (complete digestive tract, or gut tube) compared to a digestive cavity with just one opening (sac-like body, or GVC).  For each of the major invertebrate phyla indicate which type of digestive tract, if any, is usually present.

3. Explain what a body cavity is and describe the advantages associated with the presence of a body cavity.  Explain the difference between a coelom and a pseudocoelom.  For each of the major invertebrate phyla indicate what type of body cavity, if any, is usually present.

4. Explain what segmentation is and describe the advantages associated with a segmented body.  For each of the major invertebrate phyla indicate whether segmentation is generally present or absent.

5. For each of the major invertebrate phyla (Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Rotifera, Nematoda, Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda, Echinodermata) discuss:
 a. Examples
 b. General Body Plan
 c. Role of organ systems
 d. Nutrition and Digestion
 e. Gas Exchange
 f. Excretion and Water Balance
 g. Internal Transport
 h. Nervous System
 i. Support and Movement
 j. Ecological and Economic Importance

6. For Objective #5 above, discuss the structures involved, their functions, and any evolutionary trends seen in the systems.

7. Discuss the organisms and their necessary body changes that were involved in the terrestrialization of animals.

HOMEOSTASIS

8. Discuss the concept of homeostasis as it relates to living organisms.

9. Explain what a feedback loop is and describe the essential components of a feedback loop.

10. Distinguish between positive feedback loops and negative feedback loops, and give examples of the roles that both positive feedback loops and negative feedback loops play in regulating body functions.

11. Explain the physical principles underlying countercurrent flow and describe how countercurrent flow systems can be used to conserve heat, solutes, or other commodities.

12. Discuss the concept of a set point and its role in temperature regulation.

13. Illustrate how the various body systems of an organism work together to maintain homeostasis by describing the various anatomical, physiological, and behavioral mechanisms that each of the following groups uses to regulate body temperature:
 a. ectotherm ("cold blooded")
 b. endotherm ("warm blooded)

INTERNAL TRANSPORT

14. Explain the importance of internal transport in animals and discuss the adaptive advantages associated with the evolution of more efficient mechanisms for internal transport.

15. Identify the essential components of a circulatory system and discuss the function of each.

16. Be able to distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems and discuss the relative advantages or disadvantages of each.

17. Distinguish between arteries, capillaries, and veins by describing the location, structure and function of each.

18. Discuss the evolution of the heart and blood vessels in vertebrates.  You should be able to describe and compare the structure, path of blood flow, and efficiency of the circulatory systems found in each of the following vertebrate groups:
 a. fish
 b. amphibians
 c. reptiles
 d. birds and mammals

19. Trace the flow of blood through the various heart chambers and blood vessels that make up the human circulatory system.  Also be able to explain how one way flow of blood is maintained through the various parts of the system.

20. Distinguish between vasoconstriction and vasodilation and discuss the importance of each.

21. Describe the process involved in the formation of a blood clot and explain the importance of this process.

22. Discuss the structure and function of the lymphatic system including the lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, lymph, and lymph nodes.

THE BODY'S DEFENSES

23. Distinguish between and describe the human body's nonspecific and specific defense mechanisms.

24. Describe the human mechanism of the inflammatory response.

25. Distinguish between and describe a primary immune response and a secondary immune response.  Be sure to explain why a secondary response tends to be stronger and swifter.

26. Distinguish between passive immunization and active immunization and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.

GAS EXCHANGE

27. Identify the gas that all animals must absorb from the environment and explain what this gas is used for.

28. Identify the gas that all animals expel into the environment and explain where this gas comes from.

29. Describe the characteristics of a typical gas exchange system.

30. Identify and describe the various structures that each of the major groups of animals use for gas exchange.

31. Describe the mechanism of countercurrent flow in gills, and explain how it enables gills to remove O2 from water more efficiently.

32. Discuss the advantages and problems associated with gas exchange in a terrestrial environment.

33. Identify and describe the various structures that each of the major groups of terrestrial animals use for gas exchange and explain how these structures help solve the problems associated with gas exchange on land.

34. Identify the parts of the human respiratory system and explain the function of each.  Be sure you can trace the path that oxygen follows as it moves from outside the body into the capillaries of the lungs.

35. Describe the mechanism involved in ventilation of the lungs and explain how the rate of ventilation is controlled.

36. Describe the pathways by which O2 is transported from the lungs to the various tissues of the body.

37. Describe the pathways by which CO2 is transported from body tissues to the lungs.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS AND NUTRITION

38. Distinguish between intracellular digestion and extracellular digestion and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.

39. List and describe the main steps involved in the utilization of food by animals.

40. List the various parts of the human digestive tract (following the sequence in which food passes through them) and describe the structure, function, and secretions of each part.  Also explain how each part is adapted for the function it performs.

41. List the various accessory organs of the human digestive system.  Also indicate where each organ empties into the digestive tract and describe its functions and secretions.

42. Identify and discuss several examples of how evolution has modified the digestive system of an animal so that it can exploit a particular food source more efficiently.

43. Identify examples of mutualistic organisms that live in the digestive tracts of humans or other animals and describe their role in the digestive process.

EXCRETORY SYSTEMS AND WATER BALANCE

44. Distinguish between excretion and elimination.

45. Discuss the excretion of nitrogenous waste products with respect to the following:
 a. identify the source or origin of nitrogenous waste products
 b. list the different kinds of nitrogenous waste products that are excreted by animals and discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages associated with excreting each substance

46. List the other substances that are excreted by animals (besides nitrogenous waste products) and indicate the source or origin of each substance.

47. Identify and describe the various structures that animals use for excretion.

48. Draw or interpret a diagram of the human excretory system.  Label and explain the function of the various parts.

49. Draw or interpret a diagram of the human kidney as seen in longitudinal section.  Label and explain the function of the various parts.

50. Draw or recognize a diagram of a nephron.  Label the following parts and explain their functions:  glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, peritubular capillaries, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct.
 

51. Define the term osmoregulation and discuss the problems and adaptations associated with osmoregulation in each of the following groups:
 a. terrestrial Animals
 b. aquatic Animals
   osmoconformer
   osmoregulator

NERVOUS SYSTEMS AND SENSE ORGANS

52. Describe the main components and basic function of the nervous system, and identify the essential steps involved in carrying out this function.

53. Identify the main cell types that make up the nervous system and describe the function of each.

54. Diagram or describe the basic anatomy of a neuron and explain the function of each part.

55. Distinguish between the following:
 a. axon - dendrite
 b. neuron - nerve
 c. presynaptic cell - postsynaptic cell

56. Describe the neuron's resting potential and explain how it is maintained.

57. Explain what an action potential is and describe each of the following:
 a. how an action potential is generated in a neuron
 b. how an action potential propagates (travels) along a neuron

58. Distinguish between the following types of synapses and explain how neurons communicate across each:
 a. electrical synapses
 b. chemical synapses

59. Describe the anatomy of a simple reflex arc and explain how it functions.

60. Discuss the general function of sense organs.

61. Identify and describe the 5 types of sense receptors found in animals and give examples of each.

62. Identify and discuss the major trends observed in the evolution of animal nervous systems.

63. Discuss the overall organization of the vertebrate nervous system by describing its major parts, its sub-parts, and the function of each.

64. Locate and name each of the following regions of the human brain on a diagram and describe the functions of each:
 a. the brain stem (including the medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, thalamus, and hypothalamus)
 b. the cerebellum
 c. the cerebrum (including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and corpus callosum)

65. Name the part of the brain that shows the greatest increase in size during vertebrate evolution.  Also explain the significance of this trend.

SKELETAL AND MUSCLE SYSTEMS

66. Describe the basic functions of a skeleton.

67. Describe each of the following types of skeletons, identify the major animal phyla that have each type, and explain how each one functions in movement.
 a. hydroskeleton (hydrostatic skeleton)
 b. exoskeleton
 c. endoskeleton

68. Explain how different types of skeletons and muscle systems interact to cause organisms to move.

69. Diagram or describe the basic structure of a muscle fiber (cell) and be able to name or identify each of the following parts: myofibril, sarcomere, actin filaments, and myosin fila ments.

70. Describe the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction and explain what causes the 2 types of filaments to slide past each other.

71. Describe the difference in structure and function among skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle, using examples.

72. Explain the structure and function of a motor unit.

LAB

73. Use the material in your lab handouts to apply to the objectives above, and be able to apply the objectives above to your lab material.

74. Be able to recognize, name, and classify all of the specimens available in lab.

75. Be able to answer all of the questions posed in the lab handouts.

76. Be able to repeat and describe all of the lab exercises and interpret the results.
 

Email: smuzos@austin.cc.tx.us

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