Two-spirited
people are an important aspect of Native American lives. A male assuming the
dress and nature of a woman was considered to be highly respectable in Indian
culture. To comprehend this complex tradition is to look beyond preconceived
notions of Satanism in homosexuality. The spread of religion and European
beliefs took more from Native Americans than just their lives. The adoption of
Patriarchal Christianity depleted the status, not only in women but also, in
berdaches.
This influenced extreme change in attitude towards traditionally accepted ways
of life. I wish to show how Christianity suppressed a cultural normality with
notions of “sodomites dedicated to nefarious practices.”(Katz*)
Primary
Sources
Lake-Thom,
Bobby. Spirits of the Earth: a Guide to Native American Nature Symbols,
Stories, and Ceremonies. New York: Plume, 1997. Print.
Bobby
Lake-Thom was my first source to use in my research paper. He breaks down almost
every symbol and story he remembers to help readers better understand Native
American traditions and beliefs. Although no information on two-spirited
individuals was given, I feel that I became more open minded to Indian culture.
Williams,
Walter L. The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian
Culture. Boston: Beacon, 1986. Print.
Williams
provides information from his research in the field living with Lakota tribes
and well as other reservations. This source is by far the best for knowledge on
two-spirited individuals. Williams leaves almost no questions unanswered that he
can; and provided the information is not available, he encourages further
research in the reader.
Secondary
Sources
Greenberg,
David F. The Construction of Homosexuality.
Chicago: University of Chicago, 1988. Print.
This
source was extremely beneficial to me. The author used an amazing amount of
sources to provide the best history and cumulative knowledge on homosexuality. I
unfortunately only had time to read what information pertained to the course,
but there is an abundance of information on other cultures and society
today.
Marriott,
Alice Lee, and Carol K. Rachlin.
American Indian Mythology. New York: T.Y.
Crowell, 1972. Print.
To
better understand the berdache tradition, I needed to
have a basic knowledge of Native American beliefs, customs, and ceremonies.
Although no one can truly understand without practice, I feel this source gave
me empathy that I needed to comprehend this research.
Mitchell,
Roger Sherman. The Homosexual and the Law. New
York: Arco, 1969. Print.
This
source provided miniscule information of the laws of homosexuality during the
time frame pertaining to the course. It was helpful in proving my case in
showing the influence of Puritans on homosexuality though.
Moore,
Thomas. The Soul of Sex: Cultivating Life as an Act of Love. New York:
HarperCollins, 1998. Print.
Provided
that I do not support the acceptance of only heterosexual relations, I decided
to research the understanding of sexuality on a spiritual level. There is a
belief that if sexual acts are not for procreation, they are sinful and
unnatural. This source encourages thoughts of spiritual connections and
implications, which Native American society based much of their culture
on.
Williams,
Walter L. Encyclopedia of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender History in
America.
Comp. Marc Stein. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's
Sons/Thomson/Gale, 2004. Print.
Williams
is by far my most helpful source throughout this whole research process. Not
only do most of the other articles I used reference him, but he provides his own
fairly unbiased understanding of Indians. This encyclopedia in a whole provided
me with an abundance of information pertaining to homosexuality.
Thyia Marshall