English 1301 ONL / Skrabanek



SKRABANEK'S ONLINE GRAMMAR HANDBOOK




CONTENTS

1.0 The Writing Process 2.0 The Parts of Speech 3.0 Sentences
4.0 Paragraphs 5.0 Five-Paragraph Essay 6.0 Punctuation
7.0 Major Grammatical Errors8.0 Other Grammatical Errors


Read about the Grading Marks I use at this link.



Introduction

Writing is one of the core skills necessary for success in college and in life. The better writer a person is, the better that person can communicate with others. Good writing reflects good thinking. Good writing is a skill gained through guidance, practice, and self-evaluation.

To write well, you must have good ideas and a good command of language to express those ideas. You must have a purpose for writing, and you must organize your ideas in the best way to achieve your purpose. You must exhibit a good command of grammar, the rules of the use of language.

All of this is easier said than done, of course. And so this online grammar handbook came to be. It is meant as a review and as a guide to the writing problems you may encounter in your college essays. This handbook is by no means complete. If you want a more thorough reference on English grammar, there are many good handbooks on the market. I prefer an older one called Plain English Handbook by J. Martyn Walsh and Anna Kathleen Walsh. The version I use was published in 1951, but newer editions are available. Try Half-Price Books for a used grammar handbook.




THE WRITING PROCESS


1.1 Building Blocks 1.2 Why Write? 1.3 What to Write
1.4 Style 1.5 College Writing 1.6 Five Steps to Good Writing
1.7 How to Write




1.1 Building Blocks

Consider the building blocks of writing. The base unit of writing is the letter, followed by the word. Words are combined to form a phrase, or a clause, or a sentence. Sentences are combined to form a paragraph. Paragraphs are combined to form an essay, or an article, or a report, or a book.

Words are powerful things. With words, you can create a vivid image in your reader's head. You can build an emotional scene. You can craft a powerful speech. But the power of the words does not lie in the words themselves. The power lies in your ability to use the words most effectively. You should work on your writing style as vigorously as you work on your hair style or your clothes style. Pay attention in your writing to the words you put on the page. After all, those words will take your place when you are not there to defend them. How do you want your words and writing to depict you?


1.2 Why Write?

Do you consider yourself a good writer? Do you like to write? Many people say they don't particularly care for writing. They believe they can just say everything they need to communicate with others. With all the cell phones in use now, perhaps they are correct. But the truth is, sometimes writing is better than talking. Even Email and text messages require some sort of writing. What are some other times that writing is absolutely necessary?

In fact, writing is really much like talking. When you write or talk, you use ideas and the different parts of speech. You often use complete sentences. And your goal is the same for both methods—to communicate with others. Writing can be fun, too. Just think, in twenty years, a phone conversation will be long gone. But you can still read something you wrote in a college freshman Composition I class. What do you think you will be like in twenty years? Why not write it down?


1.3 What to Write

Have you ever sat and watched letters coming out of the end of your pen? You should try it. They appear almost magically on the paper, and soon you've written something. Pretty cool, huh? However, to be a good writer, you have to think about what you write. Sometimes you have to write a report. Sometimes you must tell someone directions. Sometimes you need to write down a list or write a short poem. There are lots of things you can write. Before you write, though, you need to make three key decisions.

1. Who is your audience? Your audience is your reader. But who will that reader be? Are you writing for yourself? Are you writing for your friends or family, or for a teacher? Are you writing something for the community or the nation or the world? Before you write, ask yourself some questions to target your audience.

The more you know about your audience, the better you can target your readers. When you have targeted your reader, you know what style to use, what word choices to make, and what level of style and grammar you need to employ.


2. Why are you writing? Before you write, you must choose a purpose, or reason or goal, for writing. If you don't, you won't really know why you're writing, and, guess what, neither will your readers. Writers have four main purposes:


3. How will you organize your writing? Your audience and your purpose determine your organization. To be an effective writer, you must choose the correct form to achieve your purpose. The forms of organization fall under four main patterns.

1.4 Style

If purpose is what is to be said, then style is how it is said. Style really has two meanings. One meaning is your personal style, the way you write or wear your hair. You have a writing style, a life style, a clothes style. Many of those styles you spend considerable time on, and I hope your writing style is one of them. Your personal writing style would be evaluated using criteria such as sentence construction, diction, variety, correct grammar.

The second meaning deals with general classes of style, ranging from proper and pompous to vulgar and profane.

Most of your college writing will be informal or formal in style.

Writing is a sort of self-discipline. It is, in the end, a reflection of your ability to express yourself through your writing. If you are careless in your writing or proofreading, often your ideas will be careless in thought. We often go to great lengths to cultivate our external styles--hair, fashion, music, life--but we spend little time developing our internal style, our writing.

Think of your writing as a bad photo of yourself someone has posted on the Internet and you're not there to defend yourself. Your writing has to defend itself when you aren't there. So your writing should be thoughtful and thorough, not slapdash. To be effective, your writing must

Writing involves a series of choices. You ask yourself as you are writing: "Is this sentence good or good enough?" If you answer good, you are likely to spend more time thinking about your writing, and you are careful in its execution. A reader might say "That's clever" about something you have written. If you answer good enough, you are more likely to be sloppy in thought and execution, and you just want to get the writing over with. A reader might say "What a dumbass" about something you have written. If you send out crappy work, just imagine what the reaction will be. Remember, writing takes your place in your absence to communicate your ideas and opinions. Therefore, presentation is very important. Your writing must be neat both in appearance and in thought.

As mentioned above, writing involves a series of choices. Which choices are you making in your writing?


1.5 College Writing

Many young students have the concept of some special sort of "college writing." As far as I can tell, this "college writing" involves very long sentences and undisciplined use of Roget's Thesaurus. Folks, your college writing, like all good writing, should be:

I prefer writing that is direct and easy to understand. Don't tangle your reader in a brier patch of subordinate clauses. Remember, the further your sentence moves away from the main clause, the less likely your reader will follow. Focus on the main idea of each sentence. And lay off the thesaurus. Words have shades of meaning. If you just pick a word from a thesaurus without knowing its shades of meaning, you could use the word in a less-than-appropriate way. Be sure you know what a word means before you include it in your writing.


1.6 Five Steps to Good Writing

Have you ever sat down to write, then just sat there and stared at a blank sheet of paper (or computer screen)? Maybe you thought that words would hop onto the page from your pen, run around for a bit, then settle into place. Let's face it—sometimes you just can't think of anything to write. Don't despair, because many people have the same problem. The following steps can help you fill that blank paper with wonderful words. For this discussion, I will pretend that most students still write on paper.

1. Prewriting
Prewriting is sometimes called brainstorming. In this step you consider what you are writing about and why you are writing about it. You choose a purpose and an audience. You select a topic and make a list of your ideas. Then you organize your ideas so they make logical sense. Many writers use outlines or other kinds of graphic organizers to arrange their thoughts.


2. Drafting
In the drafting step, you get your ideas on paper. You can write words, ideas, or sentences. Some parts of the draft may have too little information. Other parts may have too much information. You'll usually have grammar errors in this step of the writing process. But that's all right because a first draft isn't supposed to be perfect. You just want to get your ideas on paper. You concentrate on what you want to say. You can fix your errors in the second draft.

Be very aware that the first draft is not what you submit as your assignment. In this step, you write the first draft. Every paper you write should have at least two drafts, and three drafts are even better. With each new draft, you should include any new ideas you have. You should check repeatedly that your grammar and spelling are correct.


3. Revising
Revising means "seeing again." In the revising step, you "see" your draft again. If you have time, go away from the writing for a day or two. Certainly you should go away from the first draft for a while. Take a shower, or wash the dishes. Watch a TV show or listen to a CD. When you come back to your draft, read your work carefully to be sure it makes sense. You may find new ways to arrange your ideas. You can add or remove details to make the writing clearer. Try reading your writing aloud. Then you can often hear problems. Ask others to read your work and suggest improvements.

In this step, you are concerned with making your meaning clear to the reader. You can also define your writing style in this step. During this step, check your sentence construction and variety. Consider the rhythm of your writing. Does your writing move along smoothly, or does it limp and stumble? When you finish reading your writing aloud, are you panting or gasping for breath? If so, your sentences are too short or too long. The best way to improve your writing style is to pay attention to what you put on the paper.


4. Proofreading
When you proofread, you read your writing carefully to find mistakes. You should read your work several times. Remember, you are looking for mistakes. Again, try reading it aloud. Don't assume everything is correct because you didn't notice an error in an earlier reading. Consider proofreading as your final line of defense against sounding dumb or unschooled.


5. Publishing
Publishing means "to make public." You can present your writing to your teacher, to your friends, to your family, or to the community. You can read it orally, submit it as an assignment file, post it on a web site, or make it into a book. The way the writing is published depends on its purpose and audience.

One thing is consider in the publishing step is presentation. If you are turning in a written or typed assignment, have you checked that you have your name on it somewhere? Is the work clean and neat, or does it contain erasures through the paper? Believe it or not, instructors like to see clean writing that is easy to read.

If you are handwriting something, be sure your writing is legible. Unless otherwise instructed, use a pen, not a pencil. If you have too many mistakes, rewrite the work. Include ample margins of at least 1" on all sides. Most handwritten essays do not need double spacing, but always follow the directions of the assignment in case double spacing is required.


1.7 How to Write

The sections above give tips about the writing process. This section is about the practice of writing. Some people like to develop most of their writing in their heads before they ever begin with a pen or keyboard. A good mental outline is always a good start to any writing exercise.

Some people are linear writers. They begin writing with the first word and end with the last punctuation. This method of writing works well, especially in test situations. Linear writing almost demands an outline of some sort. You must know where you are going before you begin.

Other people are assemblers. They write part of an introduction and then part of a conclusion. Then they might write the three topics sentences for the body paragraphs and write details that support those topic sentences. Then, when a good supply of parts is at hand, the essay can be assembled. This sort of writing also requires an outline of some sort.

The real work of writing is done in prewriting and in revising. Prewriting hatches the main idea and logical order of the essay. Revising takes what has been written and reviews it--sees it again. Each sentence is considered for its quality and its support of the topic sentence and thesis statement. Revising is really more concerned with the logical or content part of the essay. Proofreading fixes grammar errors. Both revising and careful proofreading are needed to create a polished product.




2.0 THE PARTS OF SPEECH


The parts of speech are the building blocks of language. All written expression in English is achieved using eight basic parts. When you write, you use the parts of speech to build your sentences.


2.1 Nouns and Pronouns 2.2 Verbs 2.3 Adjectives and Adverbs
2.4 Conjunctions and Prepositions 2.5 Interjections




2.1 Nouns and Pronouns

Two of the most important parts of speech are nouns and pronouns. Nouns and pronouns are used for naming.

A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing.

Pronouns take the place of nouns. Be sure the pronoun's antecedent is clear to the reader. The antecedent is the noun for which the pronoun stands. (Andy sold his tractor.) Use pronouns to avoid repeating words. Pronouns are also said to have person. Pronouns can be first person, second person, or third person in usage. As a general rule, you should not use first-person or second-person pronouns in referential writing. Many assignments in this course do not allow first-person or second-person pronouns, so pay attention to assignment requirements.




2.2 Verbs

A verb is another important part of speech. A verb shows action or expresses being. A verb can also connect the subject to another word in a sentence. Verbs can be action verbs, linking verbs, or helping verbs. Verbs can be singular or plural. They can be active or passive.

Verbs are also used to tell the time something is happening. The time a verb shows is called verb tense. Tense means "time." So verb tense tells the time of the action or being

Examples:
The mayor helps to organize the parade. ←(present tense; action continues)
The mayor helped to organize the parade. ←(past tense; action completed)
The mayor will help to organize the parade. ←(future tense; action has not yet occurred)


Avoid switching verb tenses without cause. A verb tense is used to tell about events in the same time frame. If you use different tenses for the same time frame, your reader will be lost in time. That's not good. So check your verbs. Be sure your verb tense is used consistently. In most analyses, you should use present tense.


Verb Voice

Transitive verbs, or verbs that can "take" an object, have a quality called voice. The voice of the verb indicates whether the subject of the verb acts or is acted upon.

  • Active voice indicates that the subject of the verb acts. Active voice verbs are also known as active verbs.

    Examples of active voice verbs:
    Homer kicked the football. ←(subject Homer acts; kicked is active verb)
    Teresa cursed her Comp I assignment. ←(subject Teresa acts; cursed is active verb)

    In the examples above, a person acts toward an object. These three components--subject, verb, object--form the main idea line in a sentence diagram.

  • Passive voice indicates that the subject is being acted upon. The force acting upon the subject may or may not be included in the sentence. If the force is identified, it would appear below the main idea line in a sentence diagram.
  • The passive voice verb is always a verb phrase, not a single verb. The verb phrase will include some form of the verb "be."

    Examples of passive voice verbs:
    The football was kicked by Homer. ←(The acting force, Homer, appears in a prepositional phrase below the main idea line.)
    The Comp I assignment was cursed by Teresa.
    The cavers were trapped in the narrow passage. ←(The acting force does not appear in the sentence.)
    His name has been written in the pages of history.


    Each verb voices has its uses, but you should strive for more active verbs in your writing. Active verbs make your sentences livelier and clearer in meaning.


    2.3 Adjectives and Adverbs

    Adjectives and adverbs are two more parts of speech. Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. A modifier is a word or group of words that modifies, or changes, the meaning of another word.

    Example:
    dumb joke ←(dumb modifies joke)

    Examples:
    blue sky        lucky her

    Examples:
    read silently        very clever        quite shamelessly



    2.4 Conjunctions and Prepositions

    Conjunctions and prepositions are two more parts of speech. Conjunctions and prepositions are connectives. Connectives join parts of a sentence.

    Examples:
    now and then        true or false
    I returned the DVD after the store closed.

    Example:
    Lava flowed down the side of the volcano.



    2.5 Interjections

    The last part of speech is the interjection. An interjection is a word or phrase that is "put in between." An interjection is meant to emphasize a part of the sentence or interrupt the flow of the sentence. Common interjections are hey, you know, if you will, by golly, and the like.

    Examples:
    Hey, where is my, you know, pizza?
    By golly, that was a dandy get-together!




    3.0 SENTENCES


    The parts of speech are combined to form sentences. The sentence is one of the basic units of writing. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. It begins with a capital letter and ends with a certain kind of punctuation mark: a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.


    3.1 Parts of a Sentence        3.2 Main Idea            3.3 Subject-Verb Agreement
             3.4 Direct Objects        3.5 Diagramming        3.6 Helping Verbs        3.7 Linking Verbs


    3.8 Expanding Sentences with Modifiers:        3.9 Expanding Sentences with Adjectives
            3.10 Appealing to the Reader's Senses        3.11 Expanding Sentences with Adverbs


    3.12 Connectives                         3.13 Phrases:
            3.14 Prepositional Phrases        3.15 Adverb Phrases and Adjective Phrases
            3.16 Gerunds and Gerund Phrases        3.17 Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases
            3.18 Participles and Participial Phrases         3.19 Indirect Objects


    3.20 Clauses:                                3.21 Subordinate Conjunctions
            3.22 Adjective Clauses and Adverb Clauses         3.23 Combining Clauses

    3.24 Coordinate Conjunctions         3.25 Compound Subjects
            3.26 Compound Predicates and Compound Direct Objects                


    3.27 Types of Sentences                 3.28 Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences





    3.1 Parts of a Sentence

    A sentence has two main parts, a subject and a predicate.

    Example:
    The black cat chased the white dog around the yard. Example:
    The black cat chased the white dog around the yard.


    3.2 The Main Idea of a Sentence

    A simple subject and a simple predicate form the main idea of a sentence. The simple subject and the simple predicate can stand alone as a complete sentence. The further away from the main idea the sentence moves, the more confusing the writing becomes for the reader. So, be clear and direct. Be sure your main idea is what you really intend as your main idea in the sentence.

    Example:
    Delilah dances.

    A sentence formed with only a simple subject and simple predicate and a few modifiers or phrases is called a simple sentence.

    Example:
    Bowser barks in the backyard.


    3.3 Subject-Verb Agreement (sv)

    The present-tense verb you use as the simple predicate in a sentence must agree in number with the simple subject. (This rule also applies to past tense "to be" verbs.)

    In most cases, the same past-tense verb works for both singular and plural subjects. (a dog barked, dogs barked)

    Example:
    A dog howls in the darkness. ←(a singular verb for a singular subject)

    Example:
    Dogs howl in the darkness. ←(a plural verb for a plural subject)

    Be careful that you recognize the subject and predicate of the sentence. Do not consider interceding words or phrases. The subject and predicate of the sentence must agree in number.

    Example:
    A box full of old pearls was in the green cabinet.

    Examples:
    There is a shirt here. ←(There is an expletive; here is an adverb in this sentence.)
    Here are John and Jane. ←(Here is an expletive.)
    Is there a Mr. Smith here?
    It is raining today. ←(It is an expletive.)

    Examples:
    The basketball team is popular.
    The team have received their awards.


    3.4 Direct Objects

    The main idea of a sentence may include a direct object. A direct object follows an action verb and receives the action of the verb. The verb is said to "take" an object. The direct object is part of the complete predicate and will be a noun or a pronoun. diagram1

    Example:
    Bob bends bars. ←(main idea line)

    With a graphic organizer, you can easily recognize the main idea of the sentence. A long bar separates the simple subject from the simple predicate. A shorter bar separates the simple predicate from the direct object.


    3.5 Diagramming

    When I went to elementary school, one task we did on a daily basis was diagramming sentences. Then, inexplicably, it fell out of favor with educators and languished for 40 years. Now, suddenly, diagramming is making a comeback. Diagramming is a good visual tool to help you understand the relationship of each part of the sentence to the other parts.

    To diagram a sentence, you draw a graphic organizer like the one above. With a graphic organizer, you can easily see the main idea of the sentence. The horizontal line is the main idea of the sentence. A longer bar separates the simple subject from the simple predicate. A shorter bar separates the simple predicate from the direct object. Everything not on the main idea line is detail--modifiers, explanations, illustrations--all subordinate to the main idea.

    Obviously, a longer and more complex sentence would have a more detailed diagram, with several lines dropping below the main line. Here's the diagram for this sentence with some adjectives (articles) and a prepositional phrase.

    diagram2 The girl gathers seashells by the seashore.

    Diagramming helps you understand where each part of the sentence goes. For example, the prepositional phrase in the sample sentence appears at the end of the sentence. Notice that the prepositional phrase is placed under the simple predicate, the word it modifies. The adverbial phrase tells where the girl gathers seashells.

    You can also see how tangled your sentences are by diagramming them. Sentences with multiple phrases and subordinate clauses are like a maze, always moving away from the main idea. If you are interesting in the various formats for diagramming your sentences, do an Internet search for "diagramming sentences" or "diagraming sentences." (Both spellings are acceptable.) You'll see some very interesting diagrams.


    3.6 Helping Verbs

    Sometimes a main verb needs a helper to show action and time. A helping verb comes before the main verb in a sentence. A main verb may have more than one helping verb. The main verb and its helpers form a verb phrase. The last verb in a verb phrase is the main verb. Some common helping verbs are am, is, are, was, were, will, should, must, can, may, have, and do.

    Example:
    Our team should have won. ←(verb phrase boldfaced, main verb underlined)

    The subject and verb phrase form the main idea of the sentence. The main idea may include a direct object.

    Example:
    Mike can make wooden cowheads. ←(verb phrase boldfaced, direct object underlined)

    Be sure you use the correct form of the helping verb. For example, should had won would be incorrect in the first example above.


    3.7 Linking Verbs

    You should be able to guess what a linking verb does. A linking verb links the subject to a noun or pronoun or an adjective in the complete predicate. The noun or pronoun renames the subject, and the adjective describes the subject. Some linking verbs are is, are, was, were, am, and be. Some linking verbs can also be action verbs. These include feel, look, seem, smell, and taste.

    Examples:
    We are enemies. ←(enemies is a predicate nominative)
    His two brothers are carpenters.
    Her favorite state is Texas.
    Who is the first speaker?
    The first speaker is I.

    Examples:
    Nick feels sick. ←(sick is a predicate adjective)
    The lecture was boring.
    diagram3 Andy is British.

    The predicate nominative and predicate adjective are part of the main idea of the sentence. When you write them in a sentence diagram, they go in the same place as the direct object. But the short bar leans back toward the subject. This leaning bar shows the predicate nominative or predicate adjective is linked to the subject.


    3.8 Expanding Sentences with Modifiers

    The main idea contains the most important part of a sentence. You may want to include more information in your sentence. You can add details that tell more about the main idea. Details can tell whose, which, when, where, and how. Good details make your sentence more interesting and make the reader want to keep reading. Remember, modifiers change the meaning of a word. The skunk in the example goes from a regular skunk to a starving skunk with the addition of an adjective. The meaning has been changed.

    Example:
    A starving skunk ate the rotten potato.

    In a sentence diagram, all the parts of the main idea go above the main idea line. All the details go below the line. A, starving, the, and rotten are adjectives that modify nouns in the sentence. The adjectives are written under the words they modify.


    3.9 Expanding Sentences with Adjectives

    Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Adjectives give details that help the reader tell one thing from another. With adjectives, we know the difference between a hot day and a cold day. Adjectives add spice to writing. But like most spices, you should use adjectives sparingly. Let your verbs do most of the work. In a diagram, the adjective goes below the noun or pronoun it modifies.

    Example:
    Frigid gusts chilled the three stranded hikers.

    Carefully chosen adjectives can make your writing more vivid. But avoid using Roget's Thesaurus to get your invigorating adjectives. Words have shades of meaning. Synonyms don't necessarily mean the same exact thing. A word chosen from the thesaurus but not considered for its overall meaning can weaken your writing.


    3.10 Appealing to the Reader's Senses

    Writing good description is a special skill. You want your reader to see, smell, taste, hear, or feel as you do. You want the reader to experience the scene just as you do. To be a good descriptive writer, you must appeal to your reader's senses. Many adjectives appeal to these senses. But you must choose adjectives carefully to match your purpose.



    3.11 Expanding Sentences with Adverbs

    The difference between writing something and writing something well is just an adverb. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Most adverbs tell how, where, when, or to what extent. Many adverbs that tell how end in ly.

    As with adjectives, you should use adverbs sparingly. Don't rely on modifiers to give your main idea impact. The verb delivers the action of the sentence, so strive for active voice verbs and limited modifiers. On a sentence diagram, the adverb goes below the verb it modifies.

    Examples:
    The woman danced slowly. ←(how)
    The fish were biting yesterday. ←(when)
    We saw killer rats everywhere. ←(where)
    The killer rat movie was very scary. ←(to what extent)


    3.12 Connectives

    Prepositions, conjunctions, and relative pronouns are connectives. Connectives join parts of a sentence or complete sentences.

    Connectives are used to join words, phrases, and clauses. Connectives help you to expand your sentence in a logical way.


    3.13 Phrases

    You can also use phrases to expand your sentences. A phrase is a group of words that does not have a subject or a predicate. Phrases are not complete sentences. They do not tell a complete thought. Do not allow a phrase to stand as a complete sentence. A phrase is a sentence fragment. A phrase is part of a sentence, but it is not a whole sentence.

    There are several kinds of phrases, such as prepositional phrases, gerund phrases, infinitive phrases, and participial phrases.

    Examples:
    We crawled into the cave. ←(prepositional phase)
    We like to explore caves. ←(infinitive phrase)
    Buying a big car is the dream of many people. ←(gerund phrase)
    The mayor, beaming proudly, took her place at the podium. ←(participial phrase)


    3.14 Expanding Sentences with Prepositional Phrases

    Many phrases you write will be prepositional phrases. Be sure the relationship of the prepositional phrase to a word in the main idea or some other part of the sentence is clear. Avoid using too many phrases, as in this example: The book is on the left side of the right bookshelf above the hole in the wall by the window in the guest room.

    Examples:
    Spencer spent his money at the store. ←(where)
    The governor made the announcement at once. ←(when or how)
    She is an old acquaintance of mine. ←(whose)
    The dog with the broken leg bit me. ←(which)


    3.15 Adverb Phrases and Adjective Phrases

    Prepositional phrases can tell where, when, why, or how. These kinds of prepositional phrases usually modify the predicate. They are known as adverb phrases. Other kinds of phrases can also be used as adverb phrases. On a diagram, an adverb phrase is written under the verb.

    Examples:
    Chester arrived with Marcy. ←(prepositional phase used as an adverb to modify arrived)
    The boys came to make trouble. ←(infinitive phase used as an adverb to modify came)

    Prepositional phrases can also be used to tell which or whose. This kind of prepositional phrase usually modifies the subject, object or predicative nominative. These prepositional phrases are known as adjective phrases. On a sentence diagram, the phrase would be written under the subject, object, or predicate nominative.

    Example:
    The boy in the blue jacket is lost. ←(prepositional phrase used as an adjective to modify boy)


    3.16 Gerunds and Gerund Phrases

    A verbal is a verb form used as another part of speech. A gerund is a verbal. A gerund is a verb that ends in ing and functions as a noun. The gerund names an action. A gerund can take an object. Because gerunds function as nouns, they have many uses. Gerunds can be the subject of a sentence, a direct object, and the object of a preposition.

    Example:
    Revising is an important writing skill.

  • A gerund phrase includes the gerund, its object, and the object's modifiers.

    Example:
    Minding her own business is hard for Aunt Jane.

    diagram5 Gerunds are not regular nouns, so they have a different form in the sentence diagram, too. In this example, the subject is a gerund phrase.

    Example:
    Raising an animal requires great patience.


    Avoid allowing a verbal to stand for your predicate. For example, being can be a verbal. If being has a helping verb, it is an acceptable predicate. If it does not have a helping verb, it is not an acceptable predicate. The following example would be regarded as a fragment because being is not an acceptable predicate.

    Example:
    The problem being that not enough people vote. ←(fragment)


    3.17 Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases

    An infinitive is another kind of verbal. An infinitive is a verb that functions as a noun or adjective. The word to precedes the verb in an infinitive. Avoid putting other words between to and the infinitive. Doing so creates an error called a split infinitive. For example, to not obey is a split infinitive. You should write not to obey.

    Example:
    Many people like to sing. ←(infinitive as direct object)

  • An infinitive phrase includes the infinitive, its object, and the object's modifiers.

    Example:
    My goal is to write an opera. ←(infinitive phrase as predicate nominative)

    Infinitives and infinitive phrases can serve as a subject, direct object, or a predicate nominative. Infinitives and infinitive phrases use a form similar to gerunds in a sentence diagram.


    3.18 Participles and Participial Phrases

    A participle is another kind of verbal. It is a form of a verb used as an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun.

    Example:
    A leaking faucet can be an annoyance.

  • A participial phrase includes a participle and its object and modifiers, if any.

    Examples:
    The police arrested the woman driving the car. ←(present participle)
    The blouse worn by Jenna was not attractive. ←(past participle)

    Participles and participial phrases modify nouns or pronouns in the sentence. In a sentence diagram, they are placed under the word they modify.


    3.19 Indirect Objects

    An indirect object is the noun or pronoun that tells to whom or for whom an action is done. To have an indirect object, a sentence must also have a direct object. The indirect object is typically placed between the action verb and the direct object. If the indirect object is a pronoun, use an object pronoun.

    Example:
    Mike gave me an old boat.

    The indirect object can be changed to a prepositional phrase, which typically is placed after the direct object. The preposition used to form such a phrase is to or for. In a sentence diagram, the indirect object is placed under the verb.

    Example:
    Mike gave an old boat to me.


    3.20 Clauses

    A clause is a group of related words that includes a subject and a predicate. There are several kinds of clauses.

    Example:
    Pamela pens poems. ←(independent clause)

    Example:
    Since the old house has been vacant. ←(dependent clause fragment)

    If the subordinate conjunction Since is deleted, the dependent clause changes into an independent clause.


    3.21 Subordinate Conjunctions

    A subordinate conjunction joins two clauses of unequal rank. A subordinate conjunction joins a dependent clause to an independent clause. The independent clause has a higher rank than the dependent clause because it contains more important information. The main idea of the sentence belongs in the independent clause. Some subordinate conjunctions are as, because, before, since, when, where, and that.

    Example:
    The concert had begun before we left the restaurant.


    diagram6 When you combine an independent clause and a dependent clause, you form a complex sentence. Because a dependent clause is less important than an independent clause, it goes below the main idea line in a sentence diagram.

    Example:
    I bought wallpaper when I went to Walmart.

    Which is the more important information: that I bought wallpaper or that I went to Walmart? In this case, the purchase of the wallpaper would seem to be the more important information.


    3.22 Adjective Clauses and Adverb Clauses

  • An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. It usually tells which one or what kind. It typically modifies the word directly before it in the sentence. Most adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun (or conjunctive pronoun). A relative pronoun is both a pronoun and a connective. A relative pronoun relates an adjective clause to the noun or pronoun the clause modifies. Who, whom, whose, which, and that are relative pronouns.

    Example:
    The man who won the lotto was on TV. ←(The adjective clause tells which and modifies man.)


  • An adverb clause is a dependent clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It can tell when, how, why, or under what condition. An adverb clause begins with a subordinate conjunction.

    Example:
    The old woman fainted when she heard the news. ←(The adverb clause tells when and modifies fainted).


    An adverb clause at the beginning of a sentence should be followed by a comma unless the adverb clause is very short (5 words or fewer). If the independent clause comes first, do not use a comma to separate it from the following dependent clause.

    In a sentence diagram, the adjective clause or adverb clause is written under the word it modifies.


    3.23 Combining Clauses

    As you should know, a subordinate conjunction joins two clauses of unequal rank: a dependent clause to an independent clause. The main idea of the sentence goes in the independent clause. You must determine the logical importance of the information. Once you have made that determination, write the more important information in the independent clause. Write the less important information in the dependent clause.

    Example:
    Jimmy Boppo started playing guitar. He was 8 years old.
    Jimmy Boppo started playing guitar when he was 8 years old.

    Remember, an independent clause tells a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is not grammatically stable by itself. A dependent clause must be attached to an independent clause for grammatical stability. A dependent clause is also known as a subordinate clause.

    Example:
    I lost the money. That you gave me. ←(incorrect: The second part is a fragment, a dependent clause.)
    I lost the money that you gave me. ←(correct: The dependent clause is attached to the independent clause with a subordinate conjunction.)


    3.24 Coordinate Conjunctions

    As you recall, a conjunction is a connective. It joins words or groups of words. Coordinate conjunctions are one popular kind of conjunction. A coordinate conjunction joins two words, two phrases, or two clauses of equal rank. For example, a coordinate conjunction might join two subjects in a compound subject or two complete sentences in a compound sentence. Common coordinate conjunctions include and, or, but, for, yet, and then.

    Examples:
    a wish and a hope ←(and joins two nouns)
    in the garage or behind the doghouse ←(or joins two prepositional phrases)
    Claud brought ice cream to eat for lunch, but it melted in his lunch sack. ←(but joins two independent clauses)


    Correlative conjunctions join pairs of ideas. Correlative conjunctions are useful for emphasis, but they are not very economical. The correlative conjunction not only/but also is easily replaced with and. Some correlative conjunctions are either/or, neither/nor, and both/and.

    Example:
    The concert was not only expensive but also awful.


    *USAGE TIPS*

    • When you join two complete sentences with a coordinate conjunction, place a comma before the conjunction except when the sentences are very short (up to 5 words). You can also put the comma anyway in such short sentences.
    Examples: ←(Both examples are correct in punctuation.)

    The time is now and the place is here.
    I found a golden ring on the beach, but it rusted.

    • Remember, the comma goes before the conjunction, not after it.

    • If you are using coordinate conjunctions to join words, you usually don't need a comma between the two members of a compound subject, compound predicate, or compound predicate adjective or nominate.
    • If you are joining more than two members in a series, you should usually separate the members with commas and a coordinate conjunction. Some people put a comma before the coordinate conjunction in a series, and others don't. I prefer that comma.
    Examples: ←(Both examples are correct in punctuation.)

    Dan, Jan, Chan, and Ivan went to the big game.
    Dan, Jan, Chan and Ivan went to the big game.

    • The comma signals a short pause, so try reading your sentence aloud to see if your commas are in the right places. Do you pause where the commas are or where they aren't?



    3.25 Compound Subjects

    A compound subject contains two or more simple subjects. (A simple subject is the main word in the subject.)

    Examples:
    Raul or Jasper bought the tickets.
    Ramoan and I are in love.

    The subject of a sentence must agree in number with the verb. A singular subject needs a singular verb. A plural subject needs a plural verb. Example:
    Beer and wine are popular alcoholic beverages.

    Examples:
    An apple or an orange makes a healthy snack.
    Raisins or a banana is a tasty treat.
    Yogurt or carrots are a healthy choice.


    3.26 Compound Predicates and Compound Direct Objects

    A compound predicate contains two or more simple predicates. (A simple predicate is the main verb in the predicate.) The predicates are joined by a coordinate conjunction.

    When you write compound predicates, be sure you use the correct verb form for both of the simple predicates. For example, both parts generally would be the same verb tense, as in the examples below.

    Examples:
    My brother buys and sells old boats.
    Jeremy jumped, stumbled, and fell.


    A compound object contains two or more objects. The objects can be direct objects or indirect objects. The objects are joined by a coordinate conjunction. When you include pronouns in compound objects, be sure you use the objective case of the pronoun. For example, the third example below is incorrect. The fourth example is correct.

    Examples:
    Harold brought some crackers and cheese. ←(compound direct object]
    Roxanne sent Marco and me a letter. ←(compound indirect object]
    The stranger tricked you and I. ←(incorrect: I is nominative case.)
    The grizzly bear charged my cousin and me. ←(correct: me is objective case.)


    Just as the third example above is incorrect, the popular phrase just between you and I is also incorrect. In this phrase, I is the object of a preposition, so an objective case pronoun is called for. You wouldn't say, "My friend called I."


    3.27 Types of Sentences

    There are four basic types of sentences you can use in your writing.

    Examples:
    My cat went to Hollywood. ←(declarative)
    What's your name? Who's your daddy? ←(interrogative)
    (You) Bring me a shrubbery! ←(imperative)
    The monster is attacking me! ←(exclamatory)


    3.28 Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences

  • A simple sentence contains only one complete thought. It contains only one independent clause.

    Example:
    Mike floated away on his leaky boat.

  • A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences. It has two or more complete thoughts. It contains two or more independent clauses.
  • A compound sentence is joined by a coordinate conjunction such as and, or, or but. Use a comma (,) before a conjunction that joins two simple sentences.

    Example:
    The boat filled with water, and soon it sank to the bottom of the river.

  • A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

    Example:
    Mike swam to shore after the boat sank.

  • A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

    Example:
    I found the coupon, but I did not redeem it before the deadline arrived.




    4.0 PARAGRAPHS

    A paragraph is group of sentences that tells about one main idea. The first sentence of the paragraph is indented. An effective paragraph has unity, coherence, and emphasis. Unity means that everything in the paragraph supports the main idea. Coherence means that the parts of the paragraph have a logical order. Emphasis means that important ideas are stressed, not minor or unnecessary ideas. A paragraph has three parts.

  • The topic sentence tells the main idea of the paragraph.
  • The detail sentences tell more about the main idea.
  • The concluding sentence closes the paragraph. It restates the main idea and summarizes the information in the paragraph.

    4.1 What Is in a Paragraph?                          4.2 Writing the Topic Sentence
            4.3 Writing the Detail Sentences          4.4 Writing the Concluding Sentence
            4.5 Prewriting a Paragraph


    Paragraph Types:
    4.6 Main Idea and Details
              4.7 Summary                     4.8 Sequence of Events
    4.9 Compare and Contrast         4.10 Cause and Effect        4.11 Problem and Solution



    4.1 What Is in a Paragraph?

    There are usually several sentences in a paragraph. Many paragraphs have five sentences. Try to avoid writing very long or very short paragraphs. When you write a paragraph, you want it to have a logical order. A good paragraph has a certain movement. The information in the paragraph goes from

    general   →   specific   →   general



    4.2 Writing the Topic Sentence

    A topic sentence introduces the topic or main idea of a paragraph. It tells what all the other sentences in the paragraph will discuss. The topic sentence is typically the first sentence in the paragraph, but it does not have to be in that position. The topic sentence may be in the middle or end of the paragraph.

    The topic sentence should have focus. Focus means that the topic has been narrowed down to a manageable level. For example, you might be considering the general topic of careers. You could focus on a career involving computers. The topic sentence in the sample paragraph is in boldface.

    Example:

             Knowing how to use a computer is an essential skill for anyone who wants a successful career in today's business world. Computers can be used for many different purposes and activities. One basic computer application that everyone should know how to use is the word processor. A word processor allows a writer to arrange and rearrange information easily, making the writing clearer and more understandable. Computers are also useful for accounting, music, video, and graphic design. Job opportunities in the computer field are increasing every day, and strong computer skills can help a person succeed now and in the future.



    4.3 Writing the Detail Sentences

    The body sentences in a paragraph are called detail sentences. Detail sentences give facts or examples about the topic of the paragraph. Details tell who, what, when, where, how, and why. Detail sentences allow the reader to learn more about the topic.

    When you write the detail sentences, choose your details carefully. Don't include a detail in your paragraph simply because you think of it. A good writing plan is to jot down all the details you can think of. Consider what the reader needs to know most about the topic of the paragraph. Then choose the three or four details that best support the topic sentence. Include those chosen details in three or four body sentences. The detail sentences in the example paragraph below are in boldface.

    Example:

             Knowing how to use a computer is an essential skill for anyone who wants a successful career in today's business world. Computers can be used for many different purposes and activities. One basic computer application that everyone should know how to use is the word processor. A word processor allows a writer to arrange and rearrange information easily, making the writing clearer and more understandable. Computers are also useful for accounting, music, video, and graphic design. Job opportunities in the computer field are increasing every day, and strong computer skills can help a person succeed now and in the future.



    4.4 Writing the Concluding Sentence

    A concluding sentence ends the paragraph. It restates the topic sentence in slightly different words, and it also sums up the information in the paragraph. If necessary, it can also explain what the information in the paragraph means. The concluding sentence may connect the information in the paragraph to the real world.

    Do not end your paragraph with a detail sentence. You want to wrap up the discussion of the main idea introduced in the topic sentence. Remember, you want to ease your reader out of the paragraph with a general sentence, not a specific detail sentence.

    Imagine that your paragraph is like a sandwich. The two slices of bread hold all the details inside—the peanut butter, the jelly, the onions. The top slice of bread is like the topic sentence. The bottom slice of bread is like the concluding sentence. The bottom slice is similar to the top slice, but they are not exactly alike. The concluding sentence is like the topic sentence, but they are not exactly alike. Read the example paragraph again. The concluding sentence is in boldface. Notice how the topic sentence and the concluding sentence are similar but not exactly alike.

    Example:

             Knowing how to use a computer is an essential skill for anyone who wants a successful career in today's business world. Computers can be used for many different purposes and activities. One basic computer application that everyone should know how to use is the word processor. A word processor allows a writer to arrange and rearrange information easily, making the writing clearer and more understandable. Computers are also useful for accounting, music, video, and graphic design. Job opportunities in the computer field are increasing every day, and strong computer skills can help a person succeed now and in the future.



    4.5 Prewriting a Paragraph

    If only words would appear magically from your pen or on your computer screen! Of course, they don't, or at least not in any logical sense, so you must go through a lengthy process to write effectively. However, you probably know that anything you want to do well takes lots of practice. You have to want to write well, and you have to practice your writing to get better at it.

    Prewriting is a step in the writing process when you think about what you will write. Prewriting is sometimes called brainstorming. Prewriting has several main components.

    Prewriting is an important part of the writing process. Prewriting can take place in the seconds before you write a sentence or in the days before your big research project is due. When you prewrite, you work on ideas and words in your mind more than on paper. With good prewriting, the actual writing step becomes much easier. I like to organize whole paragraphs in my head before I ever sit down to write them.


    4.6 Paragraph Types: Main Idea and Details

    Certain types of paragraphs can help you organize your work. Choosing a type of paragraph in the prewriting step will help you to deliver your information better. The following paragraph types are not the same as the rhetorical patterns of narration, description, classification, and evaluation, even though some of the names are the same. These paragraph types give hints on how to organize the information you will encounter with the rhetorical patterns. For example, suppose you want to give facts about a topic using the referential purpose and description pattern. You might choose the main idea and details type of paragraph.

    You already know about main idea and details. The main idea is the most important idea in the paragraph. The main idea would be included in the topic sentence. The details tell who, what, when, where, how, and why about the main idea. Details give a clearer picture of the main idea. When you choose this type of paragraph, state the main idea clearly in the topic sentence. Give specific details about the topic in the detail sentences. Then conclude the paragraph by restating the topic sentence in different words.

    The graphic organizer below can help you to organize your main idea/details paragraph. The smallest boxes are for more specific information about the details.

    mainidea


    4.7 Paragraph Types: Summary

    When you write a summary, or summarize, you tell the most important details about something. You include key points that tell who, what, where, when, why, and how about the topic. You might use this paragraph type if you want to give a brief description of a book, a story, an article, or a movie. You may also need to summarize information in a source for your research report.

    These steps will help you to write a better summary.

  • First, determine the main idea of the selection. In a paragraph, the main idea is in the topic sentence. In an article, the main idea will be in the thesis statement or claim. Include the main idea of the selection in your summary.
  • Then, decide on the key details about the topic. Don't tell all the details, only the most important ones. You want the main idea you have chosen to make sense to your reader.
  • Finally, write the summary. Identify the topic, the main idea, and the key details of the selection.
  • Be sure to write your summary in your own words. Don't look at the selection as you write the summary. Don't include phrases or groups of words from the selection. You should avoid direct quotes in a summary.

    Remember, give the most important details so the audience understands the topic, but be brief. Your summary should give your reader a good sense of the content of the selection you have summarized.

    WHO




    WHAT




    WHEN




    WHERE




    HOW




    WHY




    SUMMARY




























    4.8 Paragraph Types: Sequence of Events

    Narratives and how-to directions tell events in order. In both kinds of writing, you should choose a paragraph type that shows the sequence, or order, of events. Suppose you want to tell someone about something exciting that happened to you. You would probably write the events in order. You would use the sequence of events type of paragraph (and the narrative pattern) to tell what happened in the beginning, middle, and end.

    Be sure to tell the action or steps in order. Suppose you were baking a pecan pie. You would have a serious mess if the directions didn't tell you to put the pie crust in the pie pan first. When you choose this type, a sequence chart--a vertical or horizontal series of boxes--can help you plan your work. See the sequence chart below. Such a chart helps you think about each event or step. You can plan which time-order words to use with each part of the sequence. Some time-order words are first, next, then, and finally.


    First








    Next








    Then








    Finally










    4.9 Paragraph Types: Compare and Contrast

    When you compare and contrast, you discuss how two subjects are alike and different. You can compare or contrast more than two subjects, but the discussion can become messy and unorganized. For a more effective discussion, limit your comparison or contrast to two subjects.

    For example, if you compare the sun and the moon, you could write that both the sun and moon are objects in space. Both the sun and the moon can be seen from Earth. To contrast the two items, you could say that the sun generates heat and light and that the moon reflects light but does not generate heat. The sun and the moon are alike and different at the same time.

    You can choose two ways to organize your comparison or contrast.



    Subject-by-Subject Comparison/Contrast

    In a subject-by-subject comparison/contrast, you discuss each subject separately, but you use the same points of comparison, and you arrange the discussion of these points in the same order. As noted above, this form is also called separation of details because you separate the details of the comparison/contrast subjects into two distinct sections.

    For example, you might have to compare and contrast the purpose and patterns used in two similar reading selections. In a subject-by-subject comparison, you would first discuss the purpose and patterns in the first reading selection. Then you would discuss the purpose and patterns in the second reading selection. The two sections would be weakly linked by some kind of transition.

    This form of comparison/contrast is better used in short papers. In longer papers, in which you would have to make several points about each subject, this form is not very effective in demonstrating the similarities and differences between the two subjects. In addition, because of the large size of each section, your paper seems like two separate essays with only a weak link between the two section. Do not use this form for writing the B exam in this course.


    Point-by-Point Comparison

    A point-by-point comparison/contrast is organized differently than a subject-by-subject comparison/contrast. This form is also called alternation of details because first one subject is discussed in relation to a point, and then the other subject is discussed in relation to the same point. The discussion of the two subjects is not separated.

    In a point-by-point comparison/contrast, each point is discussed in its own paragraph. In a paragraph, you would first make a point about one subject, for example, the primary purpose in the first article. Then, in the same paragraph, you would discuss the point in the second subject, for example, the primary purpose in the second article. This alternating pattern would continue through the body paragraphs of the paper, until all the comparisons or contrasts have been made. For example, in the B exam in this course, you would first discuss the primary purpose in both articles in one body paragraph. Then, you would discuss the primary pattern in both articles in one body paragraph. Then, you would discuss the secondary pattern in both articles in one body paragraph. Use the point-by-point comparison form to write your B exam.

    A point-by-point comparison/contrast works better for longer papers. The point-by-point structure allows your reader to follow the discussion more easily. However, as you write your comparison/contrast, beware of a static, monotonous repetition of back-and forth sentences. Try to alter the lengths of your paragraphs and the structure of the comparison/contrast as you proceed from point to point.



    The comparison/contrast paragraph type is useful if you want to inform your readers how two things are similar or different. When you choose this form, a graphic organizer known as a Venn diagram can help you plan your writing. The diagram helps you consider how the two items are similar and different. The similarities between the two subjects are discussed in the Both section of the diagram where the circles intersect. The differences between the two subjects are discussed in the Subject 1 and Subject 2 sections of the diagram.


    venn


    4.10 Paragraph Types: Cause and Effect

    Cause-effect is a form of the narration pattern. A cause is why something happens, and an effect is what happens as a result of that cause. Cause-effect relationships are around us all the time. Some are very simple and immediate. Others are more complex and long-range. For example, someone carelessly leaves the water running in a bathtub and the water overflows. In this example, the cause is the person's carelessness, and the effect is that the bathroom is flooded.

    The example above is a very simple cause and effect event. However, one cause and effect pair can lead to a chain of cause and effect pairs. Think about the example above. Suppose the bathtub is on the second floor of a house. Suppose the bathroom is flooded and the water leaks through the floor. The water soaks the ceiling underneath it. The water gets into an electrical junction box and starts a fire. Also, the ceiling collapses. The ceiling falls on the family dog, and the dog must be taken to the animal hospital while the house is on fire. On the way to the animal hospital, the family car carrying the family dog is involved in an accident with the firetruck going to put out the fire in the house. All these new problems are caused by someone's failure to turn off the water in the bathtub. As you can see, each effect can lead to another cause. Each cause can lead to another effect.

    One cause can have more than one effect. One effect can have more than one cause. For example, you forget to get gas for your car; your car runs out of gas; you are late to school; you miss your final exam; you fail the course and flunk out of college; you end up working the rest of your life at McDonald's. All the effects are caused by your failure to get gas for your car. Notice also that an event can be both a cause and an effect.

    This paragraph type is useful if you are telling why events happen. You must clearly state the cause and the effect so that a reader can understand why and what about an event. The graphic organizers below allow you to distinguish causes from effects. When you write the cause-effect paragraph, you can discuss the cause first and then discuss the effect. You can create a bit of suspense by discussing the effect first and then discussing the cause.

    cause-effect


    4.11 Paragraph Types: Problem and Solution

    You might be required to write about a problem and its solution. A problem is something that is wrong and needs to be corrected. A solution is the way to correct the problem. In this kind of writing, you would typically introduce the problem first and give details about it. Then you would give your solution to the problem and tell why your solution is a good fix for the problem.

    The problem and solution paragraph type can help you in persuasion. This type is useful to get the audience to agree with your solution. It can be used to explain something that is a problem. For example, you might discuss how hunger is a big problem in this country and in the world. You would give details about the problem, such as giving statistics for the number of hungry people. Then you would offer a solution to this problem. Give details about the solution and tell why it is a good solution for the problem.

    When you use this type, be sure that your audience understands the problem. Identify the problem directly. Give examples and details that are clear and specific. Identify the solution directly. Explain why the solution works. The graphic organizer below will help you to organize your ideas.


    problem-solution




    5.0 THE FIVE-PARAGRAPH ESSAY

    Many papers that you write in college will contain five paragraphs: an introductory paragraph, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Like a paragraph, the five-paragraph essay moves from general to specific to general.

    This document gives information about the five-paragraph essay in general. Other documents will give specific details about writing various kinds of assignments for this course.


    5.1 Introductory Paragraph                                   5.2 Thesis Statement
    5.3 Writing a Good Introductory Paragraph         5.4 Body Paragraphs
    5.5 Concluding Paragraph




    5.1 Introductory Paragraph

    The introductory paragraph usually contains a general statement that introduces the actual topic of the paper. It should contain one or two more specific sentences about the topic that narrow it for the reader. Finally, the thesis statement, or statement of purpose, indicates a specific intent for the essay in relation to the topic. The introductory paragraph in a structured five-paragraph essay clearly states the main idea in a thesis statement.

    To write a good introductory paragraph:

    Look at the boldfaced thesis statement in the example below. That statement tells the reader that the writer plans to discuss the history of certain spices. A writer's goal in the remainder of the essay, then, is to fulfill the intent of the thesis statement.
    Example:
            Though it might be hard to believe, people have killed for spices. Among the most valued spices are salt, pepper, and saffron. People may shower their French fries with salt or sprinkle extra pepper on their hamburgers. They may enjoy the color and smell of saffron rice. Chances are, though, they don't give these spices a second thought. Nevertheless, throughout history people have made and spent fortunes for these spices.



    5.2 Thesis Statement

    A five-paragraph essay has a topic. It has a main idea. It also needs a thesis statement in the introductory paragraph.
    Example:
            Could Earth be the target of an asteroid? Asteroids, also called minor planets or planetoids, were first discovered in the early nineteenth century. They are small, irregularly shaped bodies that orbit the sun, most often between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Thousands of asteroids have already been discovered, and astronomers continue to discover more. Through their studies, scientists have learned about the origins, orbits, and sizes of asteroids.


    5.3 Writing a Good Introductory Paragraph

    To write a good introductory paragraph, use one or more of these techniques:


    Remember, your introductory paragraph should be introductory, not a detailed discussion of the topic. Like an essay or other kinds of paragraphs, the introductory paragraph can have a five-part structure.


    5.4 Body Paragraphs

    The developmental paragraphs or detail paragraphs are the body of the five-paragraph essay. The body contains three supporting paragraphs. Each body paragraph supports the thesis statement that you wrote in your introduction. Each paragraph has a topic sentence and details.

    Each body paragraph discusses part of the main idea. When you plan your essay, you should divide your main idea into three parts. Then, each part will have a topic sentence and details. Each part is one body paragraph. You should discuss the parts in the same order that you introduce the parts in the thesis statement. For example, you might write about asteroids.Your three parts could discuss the origins, orbits, and sizes of asteroids.

    To support your main idea, you need good details in your paragraphs. Details are facts that you use to support your topic sentence. Include specific details and arrange them in an order that makes the most sense for your purpose.



    5.5 Concluding Paragraph

    Think of a five-paragraph essay as a big paragraph.

    Most people don't know what to put in a concluding paragraph. In the concluding paragraph, restate the thesis in different words than you used in the introductory paragraph. Then provide a brief summary of key points that support the thesis statement. Sometimes there is also an evaluation or speculation. Never include new facts or details in a concluding paragraph.

    Like the introductory paragraph or body paragraphs, the concluding paragraph can have five sentences.


    Example:
            Asteroids have long intrigued watchers of the skies. With new scientific equipment and processes, scientists now know much more about the origins, orbits, and sizes of asteroids. With luck, scientists on Earth will not get a close-up look at an asteroid any time soon.





    6.0 PUNCTUATION

    In 1988, Pico Iyer published an article called "In Praise of the Humble Comma," an homage to punctuation. He suggests that punctuation keeps society in order. Here is a brief excerpt from the article:

    "Punctuation, one is taught, has a point: to keep up law and order. Punctuation marks are the road signs placed along the highway of our communication, to control speeds, provide directions and prevent head-on collisions. A period has the unblinking finality of a red light; the comma is a flashing yellow light that asks us only to slow down; and the semicolon is a stop sign that tells us to ease gradually to a halt, before gradually starting up again." (from Iyer, Pico. "In praise of the humble comma." Time, 13 June 1988: 80.)

    If you are interested in reading more of Iyer's ideas, I found a copy of the article at this site.


    6.1 End Punctuation             6.2 Using Commas             6.3 Opening and Closing a Phrase
    6.4 Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers                6.5 Comma Misuse
    6.6 The Semicolon               6.7 The Colon                     6.8 Quotation Marks
    6.9 Ellipses                           6.10 Identifying Titles




    Of course, there is a bit more to punctuation than Iyer's analogy suggests. But his comparison is a useful one. Punctuation controls the flow of words just as traffic signs control the flow of traffic. Punctuation can also alter meaning. A change of end punctuation alters The President is in charge. to The President is in charge?

    There are different rationales for using punctuation. Some writers are strict by-the-book grammarians, using punctuation judiciously. Other writers are minimalists, avoiding punctuation to the point of incomprehensibility. Some writers seem to buy commas by the gross and put them in the strangest places, almost like hiccups spread throughout the writing.

    I lean more toward the grammarian than the other types, but I also appreciate that punctuation gives rhythm to writing. Remember, punctuation is usually about pauses. I tend to place commas based on the grammar rules I know and the breath pattern I have when I read a sentence aloud. Try reading your sentence aloud. Where do you pause? What kind of punctuation is at the pause?


    6.1 End Punctuation

    A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a mark of punctuation. The end punctuation mark depends on the kind of sentence. Be sure to use the correct punctuation at the end of your sentences. If you don't, your reader will be confused.

    Examples:
    Jack wrote a story about chupacabras. ←(declarative)
    Would you like to read it? ←(interrogative)
    Be quiet so I can concentrate. Hush! ←(imperative)
    Jack's story is scary! ←(exclamatory)



    6.2 Using Commas

    Examples:
    The woman spoke to me, but I could not understand her.
    The journey was long, hot, and treacherous. But I persevered and arrived on schedule.


    Example:
    Cesar can speak Spanish, English, and German.


    Examples:
    Jason, can you understand English?
    In my opinion, you said some stupid stuff.
    After the party was over, we all went home.



    6.3 Opening and Closing a Phrase

    Many kinds of phrases are separated from the main idea of the sentence with commas. If the phrase is located in the middle of the sentence, you must both open and close the phrase with a comma. The following examples all display correct punctuation.

    Examples:
    Janis Joplin, a famous rock singer, grew up in Port Arthur, Texas.
    Old Yeller, written by Fred Gipson, is about a boy and his dog in the Texas Hill Country.
    Houston, Texas, is where my aunt lives.


    6.4 Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers

    Restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers can be phrases or clauses.

    Examples of phrases:
    The convertible with the top down belongs to me. ←(restrictive modifier)
    The convertible, with its top down, was parked in the alley. ←(nonrestrictive modifier)

    In the first example, the sentence suggests that several convertibles are visible, but the one with the top down belongs to the writer. The second example suggests one convertible is parked in the alley. The fact that its top is down is mostly inconsequential and could be removed from the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence.


    Restrictive and nonrestrictive appositives are another kind of modifier. They follow the same rules as other restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers. Misusing restrictive and nonrestrictive appositives can lead to embarrassing situations. The proper use of punctuation creates clear understanding.

    Examples of appositives:
    My brother Mike called me the other day. ←(restrictive appositive)
    My brother, Mike, called me the other day. ←(nonrestrictive appositive)

    What do you think is the difference between these two sentences? They are alike except for the commas around Mike. The first example means that I have more than one brother and that the one named Mike called me the other day. The name is crucial information and is not separated from the sentence with commas.

    The second example means that I have one brother and that his name is Mike and that he called me the other day. The name is not crucial information (He would be my only brother if his name was not included: My brother called me the other day also means I have one brother.], so it is separated from the sentence with commas.

    How might the following sentence be embarrassing?

    Tom Camber and his wife Evelyn were seen at a local restaurant.



    Restrictive and nonrestrictive modifiers can also be in clause form.

    Examples of clauses:
    The cell phone that is on the table is broken. ←(restrictive modifier)
    The cell phone, which is on the table, is broken. ←(nonrestrictive modifier)

    The first example suggests there are several cell phones in the vicinity and that the one on the table is broken. The location is necessary to identify the broken cell phone.

    The second example suggests that there is one cell phone in the vicinity, that it is located on the table, and that it is broken. The location is not needed to identify the broken cell phone.

    More examples of clauses:
    The car that won the race was stolen. ←(restrictive modifier)
    The car, which had already outlived three owners, was sold again. ←(nonrestrictive modifier)

    One detail that the author fails to mention is the ignorance of the public. ←(restrictive modifier)
    A big problem, which many observers have noted, is the lack of voter turnout. ←(nonrestrictive modifier)


    6.5 Comma Misuse

    Commas are often misused. Usually the writer is trying to follow a rule, but the placement of the comma is incorrect. Other times, a comma is placed where it is not required.

    Example of misplaced comma:
    Incorrect → In the painting by Sir John Millais entitled, "The Blind Girl" there is a general sense of natural beauty.

    Correct → In the painting by Sir John Millais entitled "The Blind Girl," there is a general sense of natural beauty.

    Example of unnecessary comma:
    Incorrect → The painting is of a very large landscape, and depicts miles of land.

    Correct → The painting is of a very large landscape and depicts miles of land.


    6.6 The Semicolon

    Most people don't know the proper uses of the semicolon and colon. Here are some pointers.

    The semicolon has very specific uses. Few people know how to use the semicolon correctly. The semicolon weighs about twice as much as a comma and half as much as a period. From its weight, its two main uses become evident: as a strong comma and as a weak period.

  • As a strong comma, it is used chiefly in a series between phrases with internal commas.

    Example:
    Those missing were Lummis Catherwood, the director of the bank; Gjertrud Haterfock, the chief cashier; and two tellers, Ferree Clakey and Alvord Quain.

  • As a weak period, it connects independent clauses that are too closely linked to be separated by a period or too short and undramatic to stand by themselves.

    Examples:
    Such sentiments are not rare; on the contrary, they are very common, especially among policemen.
    Probe is a favored word for headlines; it takes less space than investigate.

    An excess of semicolons gives writing a stuffy and pompous air. Semicolons are particularly inappropriate in dialogue, and they should be used sparingly in expressive or colloquial writing. In standard informal or formal writing, however, the semicolon is indispensable. Its chief virtues are two. As a strong comma, it makes possible the clear and orderly grouping of complex units, especially in series. As a weak period, it helps make possible the pleasing variation of pace and rhythm that is essential to good writing.

    As noted above, most people do not know how to use the semicolon correctly. The proper uses are discussed above. A common way semicolons are misused is discussed below.

    Examples of incorrect semicolon use:
    Kyle went to the police to confess his crime; even though no one had seen him do it. ←(incorrect: no punctuation is needed, really, but a comma can be used to create a pause for emphasis.

    In the belfry of the old church tower just after midnight; Jonas and Janis looked for ghosts. ←(incorrect: replace the semicolon with a comma.)

    Albert found the missing keys this morning; where he had left them last night.. ←(incorrect: no punctuation is needed.)



    6.7 The Colon

    Like the semicolon, the colon is a frequently misunderstood mark of punctuation. Like the semicolon, the colon has specific uses. According to Fowler, the colon "has acquired a special function: that of delivering the goods that have been invoiced in the preceding words." The colon in modern use is the equivalent of namely or that is.

    Example of correct colon use:
    I have seen every National League team but three: the Giants, the Braves, and the Mets.

    A normally lowercase word following a colon should not be capitalized even when it begins a complete sentence, unless the sentence is either in quotation marks or especially formal or weighty.

    Examples of correct colon use:
    The message was clear: our views were not welcome.
    I remember his words: "Live long and prosper!"



    Note these three restrictions on the use of colons.

    1. First, do not subordinate a colon to a lesser piece of punctuation. A colon yields only to a period; the goods it delivers must accordingly consist of all the words from the colon to the end of the sentence (not some--all). The following sentences improperly subordinate colons to a comma and a semicolon, respectively. In other words, the following examples show the incorrect use of a colon.

    Examples of incorrect colon use:
    If he said: "I am innocent," he was lying. ←(incorrect: replace the colon with a comma.)

    There were three men: Idlebird, Stretton, and Szysznievski; and two women. ←(incorrect: replace the colon and semicolon with commas, parentheses, or dashes.)


    2. Second, do not subordinate a colon to another colon. In other words, never use more than one colon in a sentence. The following examples violate this restriction.

    Examples of incorrect colon use:
    The American delegation was distinguished: Reagan, Bush, and two Cabinet members: Regan and Mildew. ←(incorrect: replace the second colon with a comma.)

    The vote was as follows: California: aye, 85; nay, 15, Utah: aye, 60; nay, 7. ←(incorrect: this sentence will have to be reworked.)

    The colons in sentences like the ones just above are visually equal but syntactically of different weight. The writer knows how they dovetail, but the reader is left the work of sorting things out for himself. As much as possible, your writing should try not to confuse the reader.


    3. Third, a period should not be subordinated to a colon. This restriction means you cannot use a period before all the goods promised are delivered. For example, if the part of the sentence before the colon promises two items, both items must be discussed before the period is placed. The following examples show violations of this rule.

    Examples of incorrect colon use:
    We hesitated to rent the house for several reasons: the garage had no roof. The bathroom had no fixtures. And the yard was piled high with garbage. ←(incorrect: the period is placed after only one reason, but "several reasons" are promised)

    Remember two things: first, the dependent countries will be hard hit; their coal supply may be cut in half. Second, the rich industrial countries will benefit most. ←(incorrect: the period is placed after only one thing, but "two things" are promised.

    In each example, the first period, which the reader expects will mark the end of what the colon has promised to deliver, marks instead a mere halfway point. The first example above can be fixed simply by changing the periods to commas--except the last period, of course. In the second example, since there is no apparent way of delivering the invoiced goods without an internal period, "Remember two things" should be a separate sentence.



    The main uses of the colon are listed below.

  • To indicate that something is to follow, especially a formal statement or series
  • In place of a comma before long or formal direct quotations

    Example:
    In his most famous speech, Bryan said: "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor a crown of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold."

  • Before a clause which restates the idea of the preceding clause in different words
  • Between clauses when the second clause provides an example of something stated in the first

    (Thanks to Ben Satterfield)



    6.8 Quotation Marks

    Quotation marks have several uses. In this course, you will chiefly use them around direct quotes. Quotation marks are also used to indicate the title of an article, short story, poem, or other works. You might also use them in dialogue.

    A direct quote is the use of exact language from a source. However, simply omitting, changing, or rearranging a few words does not make the source language any less a direct quote. (A paraphrase is a restatement of the source language in your own words and your own style.) You should avoid using a series of words from the source and the same sentence structure as the original. Again, a paraphrase restates the author's ideas in your own words and your own style. When you use a direct quote, certain punctuation conventions apply.

    Examples of correct punctuation:
    In Mark Twain's reflective article, "Two Views of the River," he tells about his time as a riverboat pilot.
    Some scientists believe that asteroids are leftover "materials from the nuclei of ancient comets."
    Henry David Thoreau wrote the article "Seeing"; he also wrote the famous book Walden.
    I believe he said, "Did you steal my pencil?"
    Did he say, "My pencil has been stolen"?


    There are other conditions you must consider when using quotation marks and direct quotes.

    Examples of correct punctuation:
    The Christian sacrament brings participating followers "dangerously close to the practice of ritualistic cannibalism." ←(Note the placement of the period.)

    The Christian sacrament brings participating followers "dangerously close to the practice of ritualistic cannibalism" (Smith 666). ←(Note the placement of the period when the citation is added.)

    Examples of correct punctuation:
    The Christian sacrament brings participating followers "dangerously close to the practice of 'ritualistic' cannibalism."
    The Christian sacrament brings participating followers "dangerously close to the practice of 'ritualistic' cannibalism" (Smith 666).

    The Christian sacrament brings participating followers "dangerously close to the practice of 'ritualistic cannibalism.'"
    The Christian sacrament brings participating followers "dangerously close to the practice of 'ritualistic cannibalism'" (Smith 666).

    In the first set of examples above, "ritualistic" was enclosed in quotation marks in the original source. In the second set of examples above, "ritualistic cannibalism" was enclosed in quotation marks in the original source. Note the placement of the periods with and without the citations.

    Examples of correct punctuation:
    The author clearly states his concerns about the Depression: "We knew that the worst was yet to come."

    The author clearly states his concerns about the Depression: "We knew that the worst was yet to come" (Williams 1092).

    Examples of correct punctuation:
    Because he was feeling dead tired, "the oiler . . . was not fond of rowing at this time."

    Because he was feeling dead tired, "the oiler . . . was not fond of rowing at this time" (Crane 253).

    Examples of correct punctuation:
    "The little boat . . . . seemed just a wee thing."
    "The little boat . . . . seemed just a wee thing" (Crane 252).

    In the examples above, a sentence ended and a new sentence began between the words boat and seemed in the source. A fourth dot is needed to indicate the period between those two sentences. The fourth dot warns the reader that content from two separate sentences is being combined.

    Example:
    Evans suggests that "Casey and Caroline [the main characters in the movie] are sympathetic and appealing."

    Examples:
    Hart says that "the fall of the Alamo in 1836 in San Angelo [sic] had many effects." ←(correct use of [sic]: the Alamo is in San Antonio.]

    The "role of the neighbourhood [sic] in a child's development" is a key point in the book. ←(incorrect use of [sic]: neighbourhood is an acceptable British spelling of the word.]



    6.9 Ellipses

    Remember, when you use a direct quote, you must copy the quote exactly as it appears in the source. However, you can omit words from the quote as long as you do not change the meaning of the quote.

    Example:
    Original quote: "There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace."

    Acceptable use of ellipses: "There is one sign the Soviets can make . . . that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace."

    Examples:
    "Behind me stands a wall that encircles the free sectors of this city, part of a vast system of barriers that divides the entire continent . . . ."

    "Are these the beginnings of profound changes . . . ?"

    Example:
    Original quote: "The government must overcome serious problems before it can achieve success in this social program."

    Misleading use of ellipses: "The government . . . can achieve success in this social program."



    6.10 Identifying Titles

    Two formats are used to indicate the titles of sources. Study the lists and apply the formats properly.

    Italicize the following titles:

  • book titles
  • encyclopedias
  • reference books
  • magazines
  • newspapers
  • scholarly journals
  • other periodicals
  • titles of films, videotapes, and TV movies
  • titles of novels and plays
  • song album titles
  • pamphlet and brochure titles
  • Examples: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn; Texas Monthly


    Enclose in quotation marks (" ") the following titles:

  • article and essay titles
  • short story and poem titles
  • song titles
  • titles of TV series or programs
  • Example: "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow"





    *USAGE TIPS*

    • Many students have trouble dealing with a complete sentence of direct quote attached to a complete sentence of analysis. Usually, they place a comma between the two complete sentences, and we all know that comma will create a run-on sentence. Instead of a comma, a colon should be used to introduce the complete sentence quote. You can read more about colons above in the Punctuation Section.
    Examples:
    The first example of subjective pronouns is in the second sentence, "I went to the store to buy a jug of milk." ←(incorrect: comma splice)

    The first example of subjective pronouns is in the second sentence: "I went to the store to buy a jug of milk." ←(correct: the colon introduces the example quote)

    • A different rule applies in certain circumstances. If you say such things as The writer says, or The author states, then the comma is acceptable to separate two complete sentences. This rule is the same as for dialogue.
    Examples:
    The writer says, "The time for action is now." ←(correct)

    The author states, "The icy December morning blew in across the Kansas prairie." ←(correct)

    The author is correct when he writes, "The end of civilization as we know it is nigh." ←(correct)





    7.0 MAJOR GRAMMATICAL ERRORS

    The rules of writing are called grammar. As with any complex system, writing has many rules and many ways to violate those rules. Even the best writers break some of the rules sometimes, sometimes on purpose. But in the informal and formal styles of writing, as you will be expected to use in college writing, breaking the rules can lead to reader confusion. Some violations are considered major errors; the rest are minor errors. Most of the major errors are sentence errors, either in structure or the interaction of subject and predicate.

    Good writing requires awareness of what you are writing. You must see beyond the individual word or even the individual sentence. Certainly, each word or sentence should be correct within itself, but it should also have a relevance to the whole piece of writing--paragraph, essay, report. Good writing has both grammatical correctness and a unifying sense of logic.


    7.1 Sentence Fragments                 7.2 Run-on Sentences                 7.3 Fused Sentences
    7.4 Comma Splices                          7.5 Dangling Modifiers and Misplaced Modifiers
    7.6 Subject-Verb Agreement          7.7 Verb Tense Changes            7.8 Paragraph Breaks



    Read about the Grading Marks I use at this link.



    7.1 Sentence Errors: Fragments (frag)

    A complete sentence expresses a complete idea. It has a subject and a predicate, and it uses correct punctuation. If your sentences are not complete, your writing can be unclear and confusing to the reader. If the reader doesn't know what you mean, your writing is not effective. So, you need to check your writing to be sure your sentences are complete.


    Example of complete sentence:
    Harry parked the taxi by the fire hydrant. ←(complete sentence)

    Examples of fragments:
    Went on a cruise to Antarctica. ←(fragment: no subject. Add a subject.)
    Snigglefritz's birthday last Saturday. ←(fragment: no predicate. Add a predicate.)
    In the cabinet by the dishwasher. ←(fragment: prepositional phrases. Attach to an independent clause.)
    When pigs fly. ←(fragment: dependent clause. Attach to an independent clause.)
    The solution being a simple one. ←(fragment: being is not the correct verb form. Use is instead.)


    What's wrong with these sentences? (Hint: fragments are involved.)

    Part of a sentence used as though it were complete.
    He studied hard. Hoping to win the prize.
    Anne had a good time. While she was in the East last year.
    Because his friends had all died and he was alone.
    Desiring to have her come home with him and having a passionate evening together.
    With caressing vines endlessly encroaching on them in the verdant, muted, lush landscape of an ancient garden, hidden from time.
    In a lonely village on the seacoast, where one can still enjoy the rugged beauty of nature.


    7.2 Sentence Errors: Run-on Sentences

    Another common error is the run-on sentence. The two main types of run-on sentences are the fused sentence (fs) and the comma splice (cs).

    The run-on sentence is caused by a punctuation error.



    7.3 Sentence Errors: Fused Sentences (fs)

    In the case of the fused sentence (fs), the first sentence lacks proper end punctuation, and the second sentence does not begin with a capital letter.

    Example of fused sentence:
    Human nature is seldom as simple as it seems hasty judgments are often wrong.

    The above fused sentence needs a period or semicolon after seems. If a period is used, hasty should begin with a capital letter.

    Examples of corrections:
    Your body is amazing you could not live without it. ←(run-on: fused sentence)
    Your body is amazing, and you could not live without it. ←(fixed: comma and coordinate conjunction)
    Your body is amazing. You could not live without it. ←(fixed: period and capital letter)
    Your body is amazing; you could not live without it. ←(fixed: semicolon)
    Since your body is amazing, you could not live without it. ←(fixed: subordinate conjunction)



    7.4 Comma Splices (cs)

    A run-on sentence also occurs when you join two complete sentences with only a comma. This error is also known as a comma splice. In less sensitive times, this error was known as a comma blunder.

    Examples of comma splices:
    We started early on Friday, we were excited about the journey.
    Most generous people are rather naive, they simply do not realize when they are being imposed upon.

    Examples of corrections:
    We went on a field trip to a winery, we had a lot of fun. ←(run-on: comma splice)
    We went on a field trip to a winery. We had a lot of fun. ←(fixed: period and capital letter)
    We went on a field trip to a winery, and we had a lot of fun. ←(fixed: comma and coordinate conjunction)
    We went on a field trip to a winery; we had a lot of fun. ←(fixed: semicolon)
    When we went on a field trip to a winery, we had a lot of fun. ←(fixed: subordinate conjunction)

    Again, run-on sentences can be corrected in one of four ways:



    7.5 Sentence Errors: Dangling Modifiers (dg) and Misplaced Modifiers

    A modifier must be placed near the word it modifies. Incorrect placement of modifiers can lead to unclear or humorous results.

    Examples:
    Running to the window, a fire was seen. ←(incorrect: The fire is not running.)
    Running to the window, I saw a fire. ←(correct: I am running.)


    How would you correct these dangling modifiers?

  • Walking down the street, the beautiful building was admired.
  • Running along the street, my nose felt frozen.
  • After snooping around the office, a cowboy suit was discovered.
  • To be absolutely certain, the answer must be checked.
  • Dangling by one leg from a pair of tweezers, the little girl held the moth in front of her.
  • Entering the door, the front desk is seen.
  • Hopefully, that's the last of that.
  • Looking through the binoculars, the ship sank.

    A modifier should be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies. Be sure that your modifiers are grammatically and logically placed. Modifiers placed in a slightly off position can produce a humorous effect, as seen in the examples above and below.

    Examples:
    He almost spent fifty dollars. ←(confusing: He was going to spend the money but didn't.)
    He spent almost fifty dollars. ←(clear: He spent nearly fifty dollars.)

    How would you correct these misplaced modifiers?

  • Janet saw a dress in a window she liked.
  • We saw a man on a horse with a wooden leg.
  • Alchemy was the "science" of transmuting lead into gold, which was a common practice in the Middle Ages.
  • Manufacturers are trying to develop a cigarette for smokers made of lettuce.
  • Serve one of the melons for dessert at lunch; keep one of them for the picnic in the refrigerator.

    Here's an actual student example. It contains a dangling modifer and at least one ill-placed modifier. It is a complete sentence, I think, but I'm not sure what the main idea is. How would you fix this sentence? (I would suggest the "scorched earth" approach!)

  • Using another example was when, Rousseau describes his emotional state of being, which he continued to claim his innocence although this was his first time being accused of any wrongdoing even with the evidence weighing heavily against him.



    7.6 Subject-Verb Agreement (sv)

    The present-tense verb you use as the simple predicate in a sentence must agree in number with the simple subject. (This rule also applies to past tense "be" verbs.)

    In most cases, the same past tense verb works for both singular and plural subjects. (a car honked, cars honked)

    Example:
    A bat flies from under the bridge. ←(a singular verb for a singular subject)

    Example:
    Bats fly from under the bridge. ←(a plural verb for a plural subject)

    Be careful that you recognize the subject and predicate of the sentence. Do not consider interceding words or phrases. The subject and predicate of the sentence--the two main words in the sentence--must agree in number.

    Example:
    A can full of old razor blades was in the small chest.

    Examples:
    There is a strange man here. ←(There is an expletive; here is an adverb in this sentence.)
    Here are some juvenile delinquents. ←(Here is an expletive.)
    It is raining today. ←(It is an expletive.)

    Examples:
    The basketball team is popular.
    The team have received their awards.



    7.7 Verb Tense Changes (tense)

    Tense means "time," so verb tense tells the time of the action or being. The action can occur in the present, in the past, or in the future. Each time has its own verb form.

    I walk now.        I walked yesterday.        I will walk next week.

    Consistent verb tense means that you use the same verb tense to tell about actions in the same time frame.

  • Use a present tense verb to tell what is happening now. The action is continuing. (help)
  • Use a past tense verb to tell what happened in the past. The action is completed. (helped)
  • Use a future tense verb to tell what will happen in the future. The action has not yet begun. (will help) Avoid switching verb tenses without cause. Remember, a verb tense is used to tell about events in the same time frame. If you use different tenses for the same time frame, your reader will be lost in time. That's not good. So check your verbs. Be sure your verb tense is used consistently.


    Here's an example of mixed verb tenses with good results. But the verb tenses clearly tell what is happening now and what happened in the past. Different verb tenses are properly used to tell about different time frames.

    Example of correct verb tense usage:
    My father's favorite game has always been dominoes. He likes dominoes because the game keeps his mind active. When he was young, he played dominoes when he served as a soldier. He says that dominoes were the one thing that made the war bearable.


    Here's an example of mixed verb tenses with poor results. Different verb tenses are used to tell about actions in the same time frame. Such careless verb tense changes confuse the reader and hobble your writing.

    Example of incorrect verb tense usage:
    Talley wrote about his childhood, and he writes of how when he was a child, he sells shells to a man who sold them to another man.


    In most analyses, you should prefer present tense. Tell how the author has written the piece in present tense. Tell about actions in the story in present tense, too. Establish a time frame, and then shift verb tense only when the time frame shifts. Here's an example of verb tense in an analysis. This excerpt is from the sample Assignment 9 analysis.

    Example of correct verb tense usage:
    Twain's descriptive language also helps to illustrate his changing perceptions. Twain's use of physical description allows him to makes multiple appeals to the senses as he chronicles the differing ways he comes to view the river. As a younger man, he watches as the sunset's "red hue brightened into gold." As an older man, he understands that such a sun only warns of wind the next day.

    Notice that even though the passage is in present tense, the direct quote uses a past tense verb. That shift in tense is not a problem. Preserve the verb tense in the source. Just be sure that when you exit the quote, you shift the verb tense back to present tense.


    7.8 Paragraph Breaks

    A paragraph is a logical unit of information. A good paragraph contains the three important parts of paragraph structure: introductory sentence, detail sentences, concluding sentence. When one logical unit of information is complete, the writer should start a new paragraph. In your writing for this course, indent the first sentence of the paragraph five spaces.

    Some writers do not break for the new paragraph. As a result, an unending paragraph is created. Such monster paragraphs are often hard to read and harder to understand. To try to break the chunk of information into logical units, an instructor might call for a paragraph break in the text where a new paragraph should start.

    Paragraphs are a means of organizing similar information. These "sandwiches" of information should deliver units of information that are complete in themselves but that might also support the thesis of an essay.

    When you write a paragraph, first write a introductory sentence, usually called a topic sentence--indented five spaces. Add three sentences of details about the topic. Conclude the paragraph by recapping the topic sentence and details. Then move on to the next paragraph. Indent the first sentence of the new paragraph five spaces.




    8.0 OTHER GRAMMATICAL ERRORS

    I mark a variety of grammar problems in student essays. These range from the major grammatical errors in the section above to misspellings to lesser grammatical errors. Some of those lesser grammatical errors are explained in this section.

    8.1 Parallelism                                                 8.2 Vague Pronoun Reference
    8.3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement              8.4 Split Infinitives
    8.5 Troublesome Words and Phrases


    Read about the Grading Marks I use at this link.



    8.1 Parallelism

    Parallelism in writing is a good thing. Writing that lacks parallelism can be confusing. Parallelism means that equal terms in a sentence are the same grammatical form. For example, if one term is a noun, the other equal term should be a noun, too. If both terms are nouns, for example, your writing has parallelism. If you have a noun and an adjective presented as equal terms, then you have nonparallelism in your writing. That nonparallelism is a weakness.

    Examples:
    Running is more fun than to jog. ←(incorrect: The boldfaced words are not parallel. The first term is a gerund, and the second term is an infinitive.)
    Running is more fun than jogging. ←(correct: The boldfaced words are parallel. Both terms are gerunds.)
    To run is more fun than to jog. ←(also correct: The boldfaced words are parallel. Both terms are infinitives.)

    She is witty, charming, and has intelligence. ←(incorrect: The boldfaced words are not parallel. The first two terms are adjectives, and the third term is a noun.)
    She is witty, charming, and intelligent. ←(correct: The boldfaced words are parallel. All three terms are adjectives.)
    She has wit, charm, and intelligence. ←(also correct: The boldfaced words are parallel. All three terms are nouns.)

    He is smart, handsome, and he has a lot of money. ←(awkward: This structure is not quite nonparallel, but I see it a lot. I would mark this construction as awkward. See the corrections following.)
    He is smart and handsome, and he has a lot of money. ←(correct: Add and between the two predicate adjectives. The second part is a complete sentence.)
    He is smart, handsome, and rich. ←(correct: Turn the sentence into a series of parallel terms.)


    8.2 Vague Pronoun Reference

    Pronouns take the place of nouns. When you use a pronoun, you must make sure the pronoun's antecedent is clear to the reader. The antecedent is the noun for which the pronoun stands. In the following example, man is the antecedent of the possessive pronoun his.

    Example:
    The old man lost his hat.

    Vague pronoun references often occur when this and that are used as demonstrative pronouns. Correctly used, this and that should refer to a particular person, place, or thing.

    Examples of correct usage:
    That is my bike.
    This is my house.

    However, students often incorrectly use these pronouns, especially this, to refer to a broad action, incident, or concept. When used incorrectly in this manner, these pronouns have unclear antecedents, so a vague pronoun reference is produced. In other words, the reader does not know what the pronoun refers to. I once heard a sportscaster say: "We'll have that after this." How could anyone know what he was talking about?

    Look at the following example. Which noun in the first sentence could This in the second sentence refer to? No clear antecedent is present in the first sentence.

    Example:
    Social minorities of the time made for convenient scapegoats. This meant a sudden spike in anti-Semitism.

    In the following example from a student research report, the underlined word is used correctly as an adjective. The boldfaced words are all examples of vague pronoun references.

    Example:
    This stage of infection can last up to several days in some cases, and is usually followed soon after by debilitating head and body aches. This all seems pleasurable in relation to what is to come. Eventually the lymph nodes begin to swell several times their original size, causing severe acute pains. This was most common in the neck and groin, but this was also accompanied by a similar effect in the armpits in more troubled patients. These buboes formed a dark rotting mass of flesh, which is one suggested reason for the notorious name bubonic plague has earned itself.

    In the last sentence of the example above, which also produces a vague pronoun reference. In this sentence, which is used as a relative or conjunctive pronoun to connect a subordinate clause to the main clause. Which seems to refer to "rotting mass of flesh," but logically it needs to refer to "buboes." In addition, the notorious name, Black Death, is not mentioned in the passage.

    Because of the unclear noun-pronoun reference that is produced, most grammarians say that which should not be used to refer to an entire clause. Following are an example of unclear reference using which and ways to correct the problem.

    Examples:
    The roads were muddy, which was what made me arrive late. ←(unclear: no clear antecedent for which. The singular verb in the subordinate clause also means the antecedent should be singular.)

    I arrived late because the roads were muddy. ←(clear)
    The muddy roads caused me to arrive late. ←(clear)


    Some students have a very complex style of numerous subordinate clauses and phrases that lead the reader away from the main idea of the sentence, somewhat like this sentence but one that goes way beyond this meager effort. Folks, the further from your main idea your sentence meanders, the less likely the reader will follow your meaning. Vary the lengths and types of sentences you write. Think about what you are writing, both the content and the process.


    8.3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement (agr)

    Another common pronoun problem is agreement. Your pronoun and its antecedent must agree in number. In other words, if the antecedent is singular, the pronoun must be singular. If the antecedent is plural, the pronoun must be plural.

    Example:
    Everybody lost their life savings to the scammer. ←(incorrect: Everybody is singular; their is plural.)
    When a person commits a crime, they should go to jail. ←(incorrect: person is singular; they is plural.)


    The solution to such awkward agreement problems is usually to rewrite the sentence. Of course, you could use the clunky his or her or he or she. An easier fix is to change the singular words to plural form.

    All the people lost their life savings to the scammer. ←(correct)
    When people commit crimes, they should go to jail. ←(correct)


    8.4 Split Infinitives

    An infinitive is a verb that functions as a noun or adjective. The word to precedes the verb in an infinitive. Avoid putting other words between to and the infinitive. Doing so creates an error called a split infinitive. For example, to not obey is a split infinitive. You should write not to obey.

    Examples:
    I decided to not do the work. ←(incorrect: use not to do instead)
    He thought he had to always finish the things he started. ←(incorrect: use he always had to finish instead)
    She wanted to really write a good paper. ←(incorrect: use She really wanted to write instead)

    On rare occasions, an infinitive can be split for meaning. But in almost all cases, the idea can be clearly expressed without splitting the infinitive, so you should strive not to split it.


    8.5 Troublesome Words and Phrases

    Some words and phrases give students trouble. Troublesome words are a topic of study in elementary school, but some students never are able to distinguish between them.

    Its . . . It's . . . Its'

    Use its as a possessive pronoun meaning "belongs to it."
    Use it's as a contraction form of "it is."
    Its' is not a word and should not be used.


    There . . . Their . . . They're

    Use there as adverb meaning "in some location." There is also used as an expletive or placeholder, as in "There is a problem with your submission."
    Use their as a possessive pronoun meaning "belongs to them."
    Use they're as a contraction form of "they are."


    Your . . . You're

    Use your as a possessive pronoun meaning "belongs to you."
    Use you're as a contraction form of "you are."


    Good . . . Well

    Use good as an adjective to describe a noun.
    Use well as an adjective to mean "in good health." Use well as an adverb to add meaning to a verb by telling how.


    Farther . . . Further

    Use farther to indicate a physical distance. Example: Houston is farther than Waco.
    Use further to indicate degree or extent, such as of thought or concept. Example: We talked further about the proposal.


    Affect . . . Effect

    In most cases, affect will be used as a verb. Example: How will this test affect my grade?
    In most cases, effect will be used as a noun. Example: What effect will this test have on my grade?

    Check the dictionary for the other uses of these two words.


    Lie . . . Lay

    Use the verb lie to mean "to stay or rest in a reclining position." (lie, lay, has lain)
    Use the verb lay to mean "to put or place something." Lay must always have a direct object. (lay, laid, has laid)


    Most troublesome phrases are just the result of bad grammar.

    Between you and I

    Between is a preposition, so an objective pronoun is needed as the object of the preposition in this phrase, not a nominative pronoun such as I. The correct way to write this phrase is "between you and me."


    Second to none

    Many companies or products claim to be "second to none." Think about the phrase. What it says is that the company or product is second to nothing, which is not very good. In other words, nothing is better than the company or product. The correct way to write this phrase is "second to no others."


    Nothing is better than our product.

    This sentence has the same problem as the phrase above, a problem of omission. The writer does not include his product among the span of products. In other words, you are better off with nothing than this product. The correct way to write this sentence is "Nothing else is better than our product."


    We will beat any car deal in Texas.

    This sentence also has a problem of omission. The writer does not include his car deal as a car deal. What the sentence really says is that this writer would have to beat his own car deal. The correct way to write this sentence is "We will beat any other car deal in Texas."



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